Table 1.
Examples of antibiotic resistance mediated by TCS.
| TCS | Antibiotic Resistance | Microorganism | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|
| PhoQ/PhoP * | Resistance to aminoglycosides Resistance to cationic peptides Modification of lipid A |
P. aeruginosa; Klebsiella pneumoniae; Salmonella enterica |
[82,83,84,85] |
| GacS/GacA | Increased biofilm formation | P. aeruginosa | [86] |
| PmrA/PmrB | Resistance to cationic peptides LPS modification Modification of lipid A |
P. aeruginosa; K. pneumoniae; A. baumannii |
[87,88,89,90] |
| CprS/CprR | Resistance to cationic peptides | P. aeruginosa | [91,92] |
| CrrA/CrrB | Resistance to colistin | K. pneumoniae | [93] |
| ColS/ColR | Resistance to polymyxin | P. aeruginosa | [94] |
| PprA/PprB | Resistance to aminoglycosides | P. aeruginosa | [95,96] |
| CbrA/CbrB | Resistance to polymyxin, ciprofloxacin, and tobramycin | P. aeruginosa | [97] |
| BfmS/BfmR | Resistance to meropenem and colistin | A. baumannii | [98,99] |
| CreC/CreB | Resistance to β-lactams | P. aeruginosa | [100] |
| CopS/CopR | Resistance to imipenem | P. aeruginosa | [101] |
| RcsBCS | LPS modification | S.enterica | [102,103] |
| GraS/GraR | Resistance to cationic peptides | S. aureus | [104] |
| VraS/VraR * | Resistance to vancomycyn and oxacillin | S. aureus | [105,106] |
| CesR/CesK | Increased expression of cell envelope genes | L. monocytogenes | [107,108] |
| ZraPR/ZraPS | Resistance to fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, aminonucleosides, cyclines, and β-lactams | E. coli | [109] |
| BasR/BasS * | Resistance to class IIa bacteriocins | E. coli | [110] |
| CpxA/CpxR * | Resistance to β-lactams and aminoglycosides | E. coli | [111] |
* TCS are involved in efflux pump-dependent antibiotic resistance and are described in this paper.