Table 1.

Treatment approaches for cigarette smoke-induced lung diseases.

Respiratory Disease	Therapy	CS-Induced Mechanism	Reference
COPD	Metformin	Inhibition of apoptosis through regulation of AMP kinase.	[226]
	Astaxanthin	Inhibition of Nrf2-modulated oxidative stress and regulation of NF-κB-related inflammatory responses through binding with SIRT1.	[231]
	HUC-MSC- derived EVs	Alleviation of airway inflammation in the CS-induced rat model.	[232]
	LPHNPs	Upregulation of cytocompatibility toward bronchial epithelial cells and macrophages.	[233]
Pulmonary Fibrosis	N-acetylcysteine	Replenish the levels of the antioxidant glutathione and reduce reactive oxygen species by targeting pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and TGF-β.	[262,263]
	PDE4B inhibitors	Reducing inflammation and fibrotic processes by inhibiting the degradation of cAMP.	[269]
Cancer	PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors	Enhance the immune system’s ability to target cancer cells and restore immune cell functionality by combining PD-L1 from cancer and PD-1 from T cells.	[309]
	Trastuzumab	Durable anticancer activity in patients with previously treated HER2-mutant of NSCLC.	[291]
	Rituximab	Depletes CD20-positive B cells in lung tumors.	[292]
	CRISPR-Cas9	Modify or correct disease-related genes causing mutations in cancer cells.	[316]
	CAR-T-cell	improve the survival and functionality of engineered T-cells by reducing ROS and eliminating cancer cells.	[318]
	MSCs-exosome	Cell-to-cell communication within the tumor microenvironment and suppression of angiogenesis.	[321]
ARDS and AE-COPD	Vitamin C	Antioxidant vitamin C inhibits ROS-mediated NET by inactivating NADPH oxidase.	[335]
	ICAM/NLC	Decrease pro-inflammatory cytokines in the ARDS mouse model.	[338]