Table 4.
Associations of COVID-19 Bereavement and Memorial Attendance by Cause of Death with Subsequent Psychological Distress, Depression Symptoms, and Anxiety Symptoms
| Predictor | Psychological distress (Model 4a), N = 6,625, df=8 |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | F-value | p-value | |
| COVID-19 cause of death | 5.71 | <0.0001 | |||
| Yes | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.29 | 0.0371 | |
| No | ref | ref | ref | ||
| Depression symptoms (Model 4b), N = 6,622, df=8 | |||||
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | F-value | p-value | |
| COVID-19 cause of death | 3.07 | 0.0019 | |||
| Yes | 0.03 | -0.04 | 0.11 | 0.4112 | |
| No | ref | ref | ref | ||
| Anxiety Symptoms (Model 4c), N = 6,621, df=8 | |||||
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | F-value | p-value | |
| COVID-19 cause of death | 7.11 | <0.0001 | |||
| Yes | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.0039 | |
| No | ref | ref | ref | ||
| Psychological distress (Model 5a)a, N = 6,625, df=10 | |||||
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | p-value | ||
| Memorial (yes) x COVID-19 cause of death (yes) | 0.10 | -0.20 | 0.40 | 0.5064 | |
| Depression symptoms (Model 5b)b, N = 6,622, df=10 | |||||
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | p-value | ||
| Memorial (yes) x COVID-19 cause of death (yes) | 0.03 | -0.13 | 0.19 | 0.6752 | |
| Anxiety Symptoms (Model 5c)c, N = 6,621, df=10 | |||||
| β | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | p-value | ||
| Memorial (yes) x COVID-19 cause of death (yes) | 0.03 | -0.14 | 0.20 | 0.6999 | |
Note. β = standardized effect size, CI = confidence interval. Interaction models 5a-c F-values are: aModel 5a F-value = 8.79. p<0.001
b
Model 5b F-value=5.31, p<0.001
c
Model 5c F-value=10.30, p<0.001. Linear regression models were used to estimate a β for each outcome. Models adjusted for age, race, geographic location, and median census tract household income. To achieve model parsimony, models were not adjusted for prepandemic depression symptoms given non-significant associations noted in primary models.