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. 2023 Jun 3;15(6):375. doi: 10.3390/toxins15060375

Table 4.

Toxins from venomous animals that have shown activity against Plasmodium spp.

Taxon Family Species Chemical Class Substance Target Species Development Stage Magnitude of Activity Model Against Ref.
IC50 (μg/mL) MIC (g/mL)
Anurans Bufonidae Rhinella marina Bufadienolide Telocinobufagin P. f. Trophozoites 1.28 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [95]
Bufonidae Rhaebo guttatus Bufadienolide Telocinobufagin P. f. Trophozoites 1.28 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [95]
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Alkaloid Dehydrobufotenine P. f. Trophozoites 19.11 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [122]
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Bufadienolide Marinobufotoxin P. f. Trophozoites 5.31 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [122]
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Bufadienolide Marinobufagin P. f. Trophozoites 3.89 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [122]
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Bufadienolide Bufalin P. f. Trophozoites 3.44 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [122]
Bufonidae Not specified Crude extract Crude extract P. berghei ND ND ND In vivo Parasitemia [98]
Hylidae Phyllomedusa azurea Peptide Phylloseptin-1 P. f. Trophozoites ND 128 In vivo Parasite growth in erythrocytes [128]
Leptodactylidae Leptodactylus labyrinthicus Peptide Oc-P1 (ocellatins) P. f. Trophozoites 26.71 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [155]
Pipidae Xenopus laevis Peptide Magainin2 An. Gambiae Zygotes, ookinetes, and merozoites ND 0.5–1 In vitro Parasite development in the mosquito [156]
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Crude extract Crude extract P. f. Trophozoites 2.43 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [120]
Spiders Theraphosidae Psalmopoeus cambridgei Peptide Psalmopeotoxin I (PcFK1) P. f. Intraerythrocytic cycle 116 ND In vitro Artemisinin-resistant strain [157]
Theraphosidae Psalmopoeus cambridgei Peptide Psalmopeotoxin I (PcFK1) P. f. Trophozoites 1.59 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [136]
Theraphosidae Psalmopoeus cambridgei Peptide Psalmopeotoxin II (PcFK2) P. f. Trophozoites 1.15 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [136]
Theraphosidae Psalmopoeus cambridgei Peptide Psalmopeotoxin II’ (PcFK2’) P. f. Trophozoites 9.2 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [158]
Theraphosidae Acanthoscurria gomesiana Peptide Gomesin P. f. Intraerythrocytic cycle 75.8–86.6 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [159]
Scorpions Scorpionidae Pandinus imperator Peptide Scorpine P. berghei Ookinetes and gametes ND 50 μM (fertilization); 3 μM (ookinete) In vitro Development of the para-site [97]
Buthidae Mesobuthus eupeus Peptide Meucin-24 P. f./P. berghei Inhibi-ting the erythrocyte development ND 40%;10 a 20 μM (inhibiting the development) In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [139]
Buthidae Mesobuthus eupeus Peptide Meucin-25 P. f./P. berghei Inhibiting the erythrocyte development ND 50%;10 a 20 μM (inhibiting the development) In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [139]
Vaejovidae Vaejovis mexicanus Peptide VmCT1-NH2 P. gallinaceum Sporozoites 0.49 ND In vitro Dead-cell staining [140]
Vaejovidae Vaejovis mexicanus Peptide [Arg]3-VmCT1-NH2 P. gallinaceum Sporozoites 0.57 ND In vitro Dead-cell staining [140]
Vaejovidae Vaejovis mexicanus Peptide [Arg]7-VmCT1-NH2 P. gallinaceum Sporozoites 0.51 ND In vitro Dead-cell staining [140]
Vaejovidae
 Vaejovis mexicanus
Peptide [Arg]11-VmCT1-NH2
 P. gallinaceum Sporozoites >1.6 ND In vitro Dead-cell staining [140]
Snakes Viperidae Bothrops asper Crude extract Crude extract P. f. Intra-erythrocytic cycle 0.13 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [96]
Viperidae Bothrops asper Enzyme Fração V (Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic cycle 1.42 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [96]
Viperidae Bothrops asper Homologous Fração VI (Homologo Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic cycle 323.35 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [96]
Elapidae Bungarus fasciatus Peptide LZ1 P. f. Intra-erythrocytic cycle 3.045 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [107]
Elapidae Bungarus fasciatus Peptide LZ1 P. berghei Intra-erythrocytic cycle ND 39% (4 mg/kg), 35% (8 mg/kg) e 24% (12 mg/kg) In vivo CQ-resistant strain [107]
Viperidae Bothrops marajoensis Enzyme BmajPLA2-II P. f. Intra-erythrocytic cycle 6.41 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [112]
Viperidae Agkistrodon halys Enzyme Phospholipase A2 (IIA) P. f. Intraerythrocytic development 82.3 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [110]
Elapidae Naja mossambica mossambica Enzyme Phospholipase A2 (IA) P. f. Intraerythrocytic development 0.023 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [110]
Elapidae Naja scutatus scutatus Enzyme Phospholipase A2 (IA) P. f. Intraerythrocytic development 2.6 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [110]
Viperidae Vipera ammodytes Enzyme Phospholipase A2 (IIA) P. f. intraerythrocytic development 2.8 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [110]
Elapidae Naja naja oxiana Extract Fraction 4 P. f. Intraerythrocytic development 0.368 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [104]
Elapidae Naja naja oxiana Extract Fraction 4 P. berghei Intraerythrocytic development ND 70%(5 mg/kg); 50%(2.5 mg/kg); 30%(1 mg/kg) In vivo Parasite growth in erythrocytes [105]
Viperidae Bothrops brazili Metalloproteinase BbMP-1 P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 3.2 ND In vitro Parasite growth in erythrocytes [160]
Viperidae Crotalus durissus Peptide Crotamine P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 1.87 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [106]
Viperidae Crotalus durissus cumanensis Enzyma (Fraction 1) Crotoxin (Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.17 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [111]
Viperidae Crotalus durissus cumanensis Enzyme (Fraction 2) Crotoxin (Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.76 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [111]
Viperidae Crotalus durissus cumanensis Enzyme Crotoxin B (Phospolipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.6 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [111]
Viperidae Crotalus durissus cumanensis Crude extract Crude extract P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.17 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [111]
Viperidae Bothrops asper Enzyme BaspAc-II P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 2.46 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [114]
Viperidae Bothrops asper Enzyme BaspAc-IV P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.019 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [114]
Elapidae Micrurus spixii Crude extract Crude extract P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development ≤0.78 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [103]
Viperidae Bothrops diporus Enzyme BdTX-I (Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 2.44 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [113]
Viperidae Bothrops diporus Enzyme BdTX-II (Phospholipase A2) P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.0153 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [113]
Viperidae Bothrops diporus Enzyme BdTX-III (Phospholipase A2) Homologo P. f. Intra-erythrocytic development 0.59 ND In vitro CQ-resistant strain [113]
Viperidae Crotalus adamanteus Enzyme Phospholipase A2 P. gallinaceum Oocyst formation ND ND In vitro ND [109]
Bees Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A2 P. f. Young trophozoites 1.1 × 10−6 ND In vitro Intra-erythrocytic growth [154]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A3 P. f. Tropho-zoites 1.69 × 10−5 ND In vitro Intraerythrocytic growth [110]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A2 P. f. Mature trophozoites ND ND In vitro Intraerythrocytic growth [155]
Apidae Apis mellifera Enzyme Phospholipase A3 P. berghei Oocysts ND ND In vitro Development of the parasite [149]
Not applicable Not described Enzyme Phospholipase A3 P. gallinaceum Oocysts ND ND In vitro Development of the parasite [150]
Apidae Apis mellifera Peptide Melittin P. f. Not specified 10 ND In vitro Intraerythrocytic growth [143]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A3 P. f. Not specified ND ND In vitro Intraerythrocytic growth [151]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A3 P. f. Schizonts ND ND In vitro Parasitemia [148]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A4 P. f. Trophozoites and schizonts ND ND In vitro Parasitemia [153]
Not applicable Not applicable Peptide Melittin P. f. Trophozoites and schizonts ND ND In vitro Development of the parasite [94]
Not applicable Not applicable Peptide Melittin P. f. Trophozoites ND ND In vitro and in vivo Parasitemia [144]
Not applicable Not applicable Enzyme Phospholipase A5 P. knowlesi Trophozoites ND ND In vitro Intraerythrocytic growth [147]

Abbreviations: IC50—Half-maximal inhibitory concentration; MIC—Minimum inhibitory concentration; Not determined (ND); NMR 1H—Hydrogen-1 nuclear magnetic resonance; NMR 13C—Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance; F-moc—Fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl protecting group; HPLC—High-performance liquid chromatography; MALDI-TOF—Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight; TOF MS—Time-of-flight mass spectrometry; RP-HPLC—Reversed-phase HPLC; SDS-PAGE—Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; Ref.—References; P. f.—Plasmodium falciparum; P. v.—Plasmodium vivax; CQ—chloroquine.