. 2023 Jun 10;12(12):2267. doi: 10.3390/plants12122267

Table 8.

Biological activities of C. medica L.

Test/Model	Concentration/Dosage Tested/Results	Part of the Plant	Extraction Method	Reference
Antioxidant activity
ABTS	RSA 87.94% 0.2 mg/mL	fructus	CPE	[41]
DPPH	RSA 89.86% at 0.8 mg/mL
ORAC	928.64 µmol TE/g
DPPH	112.18 μg ascorbic acid/ mL	fructus	Soxhlet	[42]
NO	112.18 μg ascorbic acid/ mL
TPC	177.50 ± 4.95 mgGAE/g
TFC	165.52 ± 0.65 mgQUE/g
TPC	227.45 ± 1.04 mg GAE/100 g FW	peel	MAE	[17]
TPC	88.76 ± 1.38 mg GAE/100 g FW	pulp
DPPH	22.79 ± 0.12 IC50 μg GAE/mL	peel
DPPH	22.79 ± 0.12 IC50 μg GAE/mL	pulp
ABTS	214.81 ± 1.45 mg TE/100 g FW	peel
ABTS	71.53 ± 0.84 mg TE/100 g FW	pulp
DPPH	EC₅₀ 827.26 µg/mL	peel	Maceration	[20]
TPC	66.36 μg GAE/mg	peel
TPC	51.21 μg GAE/mg	pulp
TFC	40.17μg cathecol equivalent/mg	peel
TFC	37.9μg cathecol equivalent/mg	pulp
DPPH	0.80 ± 0.07 (IC50 mg/mL)	peel	Maceration	[33]
ABTS	3.48 ± 1.0 (IC50 mg/mL)
BCB	0.23 ± 0.002 (IC50 mg/mL)
FRAP	3.9 ± 0.5 P (µm Fe (II)/g)
DPPH	147 ± 1.23 IC50 µg/mL	peel	Maceration	[50]
BCB	3 ± 0.05 IC50 µg/mL at 30 min
Bovine brain peroxidation assay	2472 ± 4.19 IC50 µg/mL
DPPH	72.00 ± 0.82% scavenging activity	juice	Maceration	[3]
TPC	309.08 ± 3.06 mgGAE/g	juice	Maceration	[3]
DPPH	EC₅₀ 102.9 µg/mL	leaves	Maceration	[38]
TPC	398.0 ± 3.2 mg/100 g FW	flowers	Exhaustive maceration	[27]
	401.6 ± 5.1 mg/100 g FW	leaves
	181.3 ± 3.1 mg/100 g FW	immature mesocarp
	262.6 ± 3.7 mg/100 g FW	immature endocarp
	123.1 ± 6.5 mg/100 g FW	mature mesocarp
	109.4 ± 2.9 mg/100 g FW	mature endocarp
TFC	266.9 ± 7.2 mg QUE/100 g FW	flowers
	97.5 ± 2.8 mg QUE/100 g FW	leaves
	95.7 ± 3.2 mg QUE/100 g FW	immature mesocarp
	64.9 ± 3.2 mg QUE/100 g FW	immature endocarp
	43.1 ± 1.2 mg QUE/100 g FW	mature mesocarp
	37.5 ± 1.6 mg QUE/100 g FW	mature endocarp
DPPH	425.0 ± 2.95 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	flowers
	502.0 ± 3.01 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	leaves
	382.0 ± 2.45 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	immature mesocarp
	>1000 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	immature endocarp
	>1000 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	mature mesocarp
	>1000 µg Ascorbic acid/mL	mature endocarp
BCB	2.8 ± 0.002 µg/mL at 30 min	flowers
	>100 µg/mL at 30 min	leaves
	3.7 ± 0.007 µg/mL at 30 min	immature mesocarp
	4.1 ± 0.009 µg/mL at 30 min	immature endocarp
	36.6 ± 0.075 µg/mL at 30 min	mature mesocarp
	3.5 ± 0.008 µg/mL at 30 min	mature endocarp
TPC	227.45 mg GAE/100 g FW	peel	Maceration 70% MeOH	[26]
TPC	88.76 mg GAE/100 g FW	pulp
DPPH	IC50 22.79 μg GAE/ml	peel
DPPH	IC50 54.74 μg GAE/mL	pulp
TPC	2.52 ± 0.07 mg GAE/g	exocarp	UAE	[54]
TPC	1.74 ± 0.02 mg GAE/g	mesocarp
TFC	2.20 ± 0.26 mg QE/g	exocarp
TFC	1.50 ± 0.06 mg QE/g	mesocarp
ABTS	55.8 ± 5.4% RSA	exocarp
	52.0 ± 0.4% RSA	mesocarp
	54.1 ± 0.2% RSA	EO	Hydro-distillation
	3.1 ± 0.2% RSA	Hy	Hydro-distillation
DPPH	55.7 ± 1.20% RSA	exocarp	UAE
	46.7 ± 0.82% RSA	mesocarp	UAE
	26.4 ± 0.74% RSA	EO	Hydro-distillation
	2.5 ± 0.3% RSA	Hy	Hydro-distillation
DPPH	77.2% RSA	EO	Hydro-distillation	[46]
TPC	2.74 ± 1.12 mg GAE/g	fructus	UAE	[35]
TFC	2.41 ± 2.03 mg QUE/g	fructus
DPPH	1.48 ± 1.82 TE mM/g	fructus
ABTS	0.92 ± 2.08 TE mM/g	fructus
FRAP	0.38 ± 1.98 FeII mM/g	fructus
TPC	31.60 ± 0.35 mg GAE/g	fructus	Maceration and UAE	[15]
TFC	15.38 ± 0.02 mg RE/g
DPPH	EC₅₀ 78.00% μg/mL
DPPH	47.45% (3.2 mg/mL)	fructus	Maceration in 95% ethanol and 0.3 mol/L of NaOH solution overnight	[61]
ABTS	49.58% (3.2 mg/mL)	fructus		[61]
DPPH	90.24% at 1.0 mg/mL	fructus	CPE	[41]
ORAC	928.64 µmol TE/g	fructus	CPE	[41]
Hydroxyl RSA	81.5% at 0.8 mg/mL	fructus	Digestion	[45]
Superoxide anion radical scavenging activity	7.7 to 73.5% at 0.05 to 0.8 mg/mL	fructus	Digestion	[45]
TPC	25.8 ± 2.8 mg GAE/g of DW	by-products	Maceration 96% EtOH	[68]
DPPH	43.8 ± 0.3%	by-products	Maceration 96% EtOH	[68]
Antimicrobial, antiviral and antifungal activity
MTT	95% inhibition at 0.5 µg/µL on Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell line with Avian influenza A virus (H5N1	EO	Hydro-distillation	[69]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC: C. albicans 3 µg/mL, B. subtilis 25 µg/mL, K. pneumonia 25 µg/mL	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[41]
Agar diffusion assay	Inibition zone (mm): B. subtilis 13, B. cereus 21, S. aureus 12, K. pneumonia 15, C. albicans 27, A. niger 11	leaves
Plaque reduction assay	50% at 0.504 µg/µl	fructus
Plaque reduction assay	95% at 0.5 µg/µl	leaves
Plate count analysis	Saccharomyces cerevisiae: 3 min at 500 ppm	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[44]
Plate count analysis	Bacteria survival: E. coli (600 ppm) 1 log decrease at day 3, S. Enteritidis (600 ppm) 3 log decrease at day 3, L. monocytogenes (600 ppm) 4 log decrease at day 3	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[70]
Disc diffusion test	Inibition zone (mm): mold growth on bread from 8.54 ± 1.27 mm to 15.26 ± 2.16 mm	flower and fructus	Hydro-distillation	[71]
Disc diffusion test	Inibition zone (mm): mold growth on bread > 90 mm	leaves	Hydro-distillation	[71]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC (µL/mL): Lactobacillus curvatus, Weissella viridescens, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Enterococcus faecium, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus dextrinicus, Lactobacillus sakei, and Pediococcus dextrinicus from 7.33 ± 0.57 to 9.00 ± 0.00	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[72]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC (mg/mL): Gram-positive from 0.625 to 1.25; Gram-negative bacteria 2.5	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[73]
Plate count analysis	MIC (mg/mL): Gluconobacter cerinus, Dekkera bruxellensis, Candida zemplinina, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Pichia guilliermondii, and Zygosaccharomyces bailii from 530 to 4240	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[74]
Oxford cup method	MIC (mg/mL): Fusarium oxysporum 9.38, Fusarium solani 12.05, and Cylindrocarpon destructans 8.44	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[75]
Plate count analysis	Yersinia enterocolitica O9, Proteus spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, and E. coli: not effective	aerial parts	Hydro-distillation	[76]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC (mg/L): Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Pseudomonas fragi, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Aspergillus niger < 2000	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[77]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC (v/v%): Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, Salmonella paratyphi B, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus flavus from 1 and 4% v/v	peel	Hydro-distillation	[46]
Biofilm formation	Inhibition of biofilm formation (%): Staphylococcus aureus 100% at 0.75 mg/mL	fructus	Ultrasonic/microwave assisted hydro-distillation	[78]
Biofilm formation	Inhibition of biofilm formation (%): Staphylococcus aureus 83l% at 0.75 mg/mL	fructus	Maceration	[78]
Agar diffusion assay	Gold fingered citron MIC (mg/mL): Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus from 0.00 to 10.82 ± 02	fructus	ultrasonic	[79]
	Cantonese fingered citron MIC (mg/mL): Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus from 0.00 to 9.81 ± 0.20
	Sichuan fingered citron MIC (mg/mL): Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus from 0.00 to 10.83 ± 0.24
Agar diffusion assay	Sulphur nanoparticles MIC (µg/mL): Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhi, Chromobacterium violaceum, Fusarium oxysporum, and Aspergillus flavus from 250 ± 1.21 to 700 ± 1.88	leaves	Hydro-distillation	[80]
Agar diffusion assay	Aluminium oxide nanoparticles MIC (µg/mL): Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhi, Chromobacterium violaceum, Fusarium oxysporum, and Aspergillus flavus from 150 ± 2.77 to 1000 ± 1.1	leaves	Hydro-distillation	[80]
Tetrazolium microplate Assay	Nanoemulsions MIC (μL/mL): Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus from 0.16 to >2.5	commercial EO	Commercial EO	[81]
Mycelial growth assay	Nanoemulsions mycelial growth inhibition (%): Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus niger from 3.6 ± 0.6 to 27.0 ± 1.1	commercial EO	Commercial EO	[81]
Agar diffusion assay	ZnO nanoparticles inhibition zone (mm): Streptomyces sannanesis, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger from 22 to 25	peel	Maceration	[82]
Agar diffusion assay	Ethyl acetate and ethanolic extract MIC (mg/mL): Staphylococcus auricularis not active, Streptococcus mitis not active, Streptococcus pneumoniae not active, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli from 12.5 to 25.	peel	Reflex extraction	[83]
Agar diffusion assay	MIC (mg/mL): Staphylococcus auricularis, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Klebsiella pneumoniae from 1.5625 to 6.25; Escherichia coli not active	juice	Hand squeezing	[83]
Agar diffusion assay	Zone of inhibition (mm): Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, and Candida albicans from 0 to 23	root, leaf, bark, peel, pulp	Maceration	[84]
Agar diffusion assay		juice	Hand squeezing	[84]
Agar diffusion assay	Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli; Klebsiella pneumonia not active	juice	Hand squeezing	[85]
Pour plate	(At 2.0 mg/mL) MIC: P. aeruginosa 82.8%, S. aureus 100%	fructus	Maceration	[21]
Microtiter-plate	E. coli, L. monocytegenes, P. carotovorum, Ps. aeruginosa, and S. aureus MIC (mg/mL): 7–10	peel	Maceration	[34]
Microtiter-plate		pulp	Maceration	[34]
Adherence and invasion in HeLA cells	Adherence (50.8 to 91%), invasion (85.1 to 94.8%) in C. jejuni strain	by-products	Maceration	[68]
Motility	Inhibition C. jejuni: 35–50%	peles, seeds, bagasse	Maceration	[86]
Biofilm formation	Inhibition C. jejuni: 60–75%,	peles, seeds, bagasse	Maceration	[86]
Disk diffusion	E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, Propionibacterium acnes, Salmonella typhi, and fungi Fusarium culmorum, F. oxysporum, and F. graminearum; zone of inhibition:10–30 mm	fructus	Squeezing	[87]
Crystal violet staining	MIC = 1.25% (v/v)	fructus	Carbon-quantum-dots synthesis	[88]
Cytotoxic activity
MTT	Growth inhibition 56.5 ± 3.6% 50 µg/mL	peel	Hydro-distillation	[89]
	Growth inhibition 30.2 ± 2.2% and 73.3 ± 2.6% cell death at 25 and 50 μg/mL	peel		[90]
	EC₅₀ 1.24 ± 0.42 EO EC₅₀ 2.97 ± 0.07 Hy	fructus		[54]
	EC₅₀ 1.76 ± 0.32	exocarp	Maceration and UAE	[54]
	50% growth inhibition at 7.80 and 9.50 μmol/L	peel	Semisynthesis	[91]
	IC₅₀ from 60.5 to 80.0 μM	bark	Maceration	[37]
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity
NO	56% after 12 h, 83% after 24 h at 0.063 mg/mL	fructus	Hydro-distillation	[77]
	IC₅₀ 17.0 mg/mL	peel		[92]
	10.87–82.77% at 500 mg (60–300 min)			[24]
	250–500 mg at 30–120 min
Clinical study	> than placebo in reduction in headache-attack intensity	juice	Syrup	[10]
Hypoglycemic activity
α-amylase	IC₅₀ 625 ± 8.53 µg/mL	peel	Maceration	[50]
	>1000 IC₅₀ µg/mL	flowers		[27]
	438.5 ± 5.2 IC₅₀ µg/mL	leaves
	702.2 ± 5.7 IC₅₀ µg/mL	immature mesocarp
	702.2 ± 5.7 IC₅₀ µg/mL	immature endocarp
	707.4 ± 5.6 IC₅₀ µg/mL	mature mesocarp
	426.0 ± 4.4 IC₅₀ µg/mL	mature endocarp
α -glucosidase	>1000 IC₅₀ µg/mL	flowers
	777.8 ± 5.4 IC₅₀ µg/mL	leaves
	539.7 ± 6.4 IC₅₀ µg/mL	immature mesocarp
	472.9 ± 4.7 IC₅₀ µg/mL	immature endocarp
	633.1 ± 3.4 IC₅₀ µg/mL	mature mesocarp
	574.1 ± 5.8 IC₅₀ µg/mL	mature endocarp
Plasma glucose level	Glucose (mg/dL): from 213 (60 min) to 155 (120 min)	epicarp	Hydro-distillation	[53]
	Glucose (mg/dL): from 228 (60 min) to 216(120 min)	pulp		[53]
	From glucose level (mg/dL) 106.8 ± 5.87 to 105.2 ± 8.35 (after 1 month) at 200 mg/kg/day; from glucose level (mg/dL) 109.3 ± 5.04 to 87.4 ± 6.30 (after 1 month) at 400 mg/kg/day	leaves	Maceration	[38]