Figure 1.

Life cycle diagram illustrating the various stages and transmission cycle of P. vivax, including the arrested hypnozoite stage. An infected female Anopheles mosquito injects sporozoites into the bloodstream, which migrate to the liver. Sporozoites then develop into hypnozoites (latent infection) and/or merozoites (active infection). Hypnozoites remain dormant in the liver until they reactivate as merozoites weeks to months later. Merozoites released from the liver infect new red blood cells and undergo asexual reproduction to produce the ring stage, trophozoites, and the schizont, as well as gametocytes. The gametocytes are then taken up by another mosquito, and the cycle continues. The most commonly-used antigens in serosurveillance are included in the diagram to indicate where they are expressed: circumsporozoite stage protein (CSP) (sporozoite stage), merozoite surface protein (MSP) (blood stage) and apical membrane antigen (AMA) (blood stage). Created with BioRender.com (Accessed on 19 May 2023) [13].