Table 2.
Examples of carotenoid content in marine bacteria and cyanobacteria.
| Organisms | Species | Carotenoids | Collection Sites | Experimental Conditions | Quantification/Identification Methodologies | Contents | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria | Rubritalea squalenifaciens (DSM 18772T) | Diapolycopenedioc acid xylosylesters | Miura Peninsula, Kanagawa, Japan | Liquid culture (1.0% starch, 0.4% yeast extract, and 0.2% peptone in seawater), 30 °C, 120 rpm, 2 days | Carotenoids purification by chromatography and identification of the structures by HRESI-MS and spectroscopic analyses |
2.2–10.2 mg purified from cells in a 42 L culture | [81] |
| Planococcus maritimus strain iso-3 | Methyl 5-glucosyl-5,6-dihydro-apo-4,4′-lycopenoate | Clyde estuary, UK | Marine broth 2216), 30 °C, 120 rpm, 1 day |
Carotenoids purification by chromatography and identification of the structures by HRESI-MS and spectroscopic analyses | 2.5 mg purified from cells in an 18 L culture | [81] | |
| 04OKA-13-27 (MBIC08261) | (3R)-saproxanthin | Coast of Okinawa Prefecture, Japan | Marine Broth 2216, 30 °C, 100 rpm, 1 day |
Carotenoids purification by chromatography and identification of the structures by MS, 1H-NMR, and CD analyses | 0.3 mg purified from cells in a 2 L culture | [81] | |
| YM6-073 (MBIC06409) | (3R,2′S)-myxol | Coast of Okinawa Prefecture, Japan | Marine broth, 30 °C, 100 rpm, 1 day | Carotenoids purification by chromatography and identification of the structures by MS, 1H-NMR, and CD analyses | 0.5 mg purified from cells in a 2 L culture | [81] | |
| Erythrobacter rubeus sp. nov. | Keto-spirilloxanthin | Hamdeok Beach, Jeju Island, Republic of Korea | Marine agar 2216, 25 °C | - | - | [82] | |
| Flavobacterium sp. P8 | Zeaxanthin | King George Island, Antarctica | 2 L medium (7 g/L peptone, 7 g/L yeast extract, and 15 g/L NaCl) in a 5 L-bioreactor, 20 °C, pH 7, 1 vvm airflow, 20% pO2, 72 h | HPLC | 2.15 ± 0.15 mg/L, DW | [83] | |
| Brevundimonas scallop | Astaxanthin, 2,2′-dihydroxy-astaxanthin, and 2-hydroxy-astaxanthin | Nanao Island of Guangdong Province, China | 100 mL LB medium, 25 °C, 150 rpm, 3 days | Spectrophotometry | 104.29 ± 4.98 µg/g astaxanthin, 1068.46 ± 52.42 µg/g 2,2′-dihydroxy-astaxanthin, and 130.36 ± 6.11 µg/g 2-hydroxy-astaxanthin, DW | [84] | |
| Erythrobacter citreus LAMA 915 | Adonixanthin, caloxanthin, canthaxanthin, erythroxanthin sulfate, nostoxanthin, and zeaxanthin | Atlantic Ocean (30° S, 36° W) | Soluble fish hydrolysate 0.5% | Spectrophotometry | 1.5 mg/L total carotenoids, FW | [85] | |
| Erythrobacter flavus KJ5 | Caloxanthin, caloxanthin sulfate, caloxanthin sulfate isomer, β-carotene, β-carotene cis isomer, β-cryptoxanthin, nostoxanthin sulfate, nostoxanthin isomer, zeaxanthin, zeaxanthin isomer, zeaxanthin sulfate, and zeaxanthin sulfate cis isomer | Hard coral Acropora nasuta, Karimunjawa Islands, Indonesia | Shioi broth, 28 °C, under dark conditions, 48 h | - | - | [86] | |
| Planococcus sp. Eg-Natrun | Astaxanthin and β-carotene | Umm Risha Lake, Wadi El-Natrun, south of Al-Buhayrah province, Egypt | E1 rich marine medium (C/N~3.95), 37 °C, 150 rpm, 3 days | Spectrophotometry | 1024 ± 53 µg/g, DW | [87] | |
| Brevundimonas sp. strain N-5 | Astaxanthin | Shimoda Port, Shizuoka Prefecture on the Pacific coast of Middle Japan | NB broth, 150 rpm, 2 days | HPLC | 601.2 μg/g total carotenoids, 364.6 μg/g astaxanthin (3S, 3′S), DW | [88] | |
| Paracoccus sp. strain N-81106 | Astaxanthin | Iwate, Japan | OEG medium, 25 °C, 150 rpm, 18 h | HPLC | 0.9 ± 0.1 mg/L astaxanthin,3.1 ± 0.2 mg/L total carotenoids, FW | [89] | |
| Vitellibacter sp. BW | Zeaxanthin and β-carotene | East and West coast of India (Tuticorin, Mandappam, Rameshwaram, and Mangalore) | Marine broth, 37 °C, 200 rpm, 5 days | HPLC | 115.7 ± 5.0 mg/g total carotenoid, FW | [90] | |
| Arenibacter sp. 4W | Zeaxanthin and β-carotene | East and West coast of India (Tuticorin, Mandappam, Rameshwaram, and Mangalore) | Marine broth, 37 °C, 200 rpm, 5 days | HPLC | 99.3 ± 21.9 mg/g total carotenoid, FW | [90] | |
| Paracoccus sp. LL1 (KP288668) | Astaxanthin | Lonar lake, India | Fed-batch culture in minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L of glucose. Fermenter with a membrane of cell filtration, 1.5 vvm airflow, 300 rpm, DO > 20% | HPLC | 8.51 ± 0.20 mg/L intracellular astaxanthin, 10.2 ± 0.24 mg/L extracellular astaxanthin, FW | [91] | |
| Paracoccus haeundaensis KCCM 10460 | Astaxanthin | - | Co-culture with lactic acid bacteria. PMF medium, 25 °C, 160 rpm, 1 vvm airflow, 72 h | HPLC | 821.09 ± 30.98 µg/g, DW | [92] | |
| Paracoccus zeaxanthinifaciens ATCC 21588 | Zeaxanthin | Purchased from BCCM/LMG, Ghent University, Belgium | Culture media, 30 °C, 180 rpm, 72 h | TLC and spectrophotometry | 11.63 mg/L, FW | [93] | |
| Paracoccus zeaxanthinifaciens ATCC 21588 | Zeaxanthin | Purchased from BCCM/LMG, Ghent University, Belgium | Culture media in a bubble column reactor, 30 °C, 80 h | HPLC | 13.76 ± 0.14 mg/L, FW | [94] | |
| Cyanobacteria | Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 | Canthaxanthin, β-carotene, echinenone, ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, and myxol 2′-fucoside | A gift from Waseda University, Japan | BG-11 medium, 26–28 °C, 110 rpm, white fluorescent light (30–40 µE m−2 s−1), 2 weeks | HPLC | Relative molecular masses (%): 1 canthaxanthin, 62 β-carotene, 25 echinenone, 4 ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, and 8 myxol 2′-fucoside | [95] |
| Anabaena variabilis IAM M-3 (=PCC 7118, ATCC 27893) | Canthaxanthin, β-carotene, echinenone, ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, 3′-hydroxyechinenone, and myxol 2′-fucoside | A gift from Waseda University, Japan | BG-11 medium, 26–28 °C, 110 rpm, white fluorescent light (30–40 µE m−2 s−1), 2 weeks | HPLC | Relative molecular masses (%): 4 canthaxanthin, 38 β-carotene, 33 echinenone, 13 ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, 1 3′-hydroxyechinenone, and 11 myxol 2′-fucoside | [95] | |
| Nostoc punctiforme PCC 73102 (=ATCC 29133) | Canthaxanthin, β-carotene, echinenone, ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, and myxol 2′-fucoside | A gift from Kanazawa University, Japan | BG-11 medium, 26-28 °C, 110 rpm, white fluorescent light (30–40 µE m−2 s−1), 2 weeks | HPLC | Relative molecular masses (%): 13 canthaxanthin, 45 β-carotene, 17 echinenone, 13 ketomyxol 2′-fucoside, and 11 myxol 2′-fucoside | [95] | |
| Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413 (=IAM M204) | Canthaxanthin, β-carotene, echinenone, 4-hydroxymyxol, and myxol | A gift from Waseda University, Japan | BG-11 medium, 26–28 °C, 110 rpm, white fluorescent light (30–40 µE m−2 s−1), 2 weeks | HPLC | Relative molecular masses (%): 22 canthaxanthin, 51 β-carotene, 20 echinenone, 2 4-hydroxymyxol, and 5 myxol | [96] | |
| Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 | β-carotene, deoxymyxol 2′-dimethyl-fucoside, echinenone, 3′-hydroxyechinenone, myxol 2′-dimethyl-fucoside, and zeaxanthin | A gift from Waseda University, Japan | BG-11 medium supplemented with 10 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) in 10 L carboys, 30 °C with aeration and irradiation (40–100 E/m2·s) | HPLC | Relative molecular masses (%): 26 β-carotene, 1 deoxymyxol 2′-dimethyl-fucoside, 18 echinenone, 4 3′-hydroxyechinenone, 36 myxol 2′-dimethyl-fucoside, and 14 zeaxanthin | [97] |
CD, circular dichroism; DW, dry weight; FW, fresh weight; 1H-NMR, proton nuclear magnetic resonance; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; HRESI-MS, high-resolution electrospray ionization-mass spectroscopy; MS, mass spectrometry; TLC, thin-layer chromatography.