Table 1.

Antimicrobial influence of shikonin against food-borne pathogens.

Type of Microbe	MIC (µg/mL)	Antimicrobial Mechanism	References
Bacteria
L. monocytogenes strains (ATCC 19115, ATCC 15313, A17, A24, B9, B19, C6, and C34)	25–100	Several virulence-associated genes (agrA, flaA, and sigB) were influenced by shikonin	[12]
S. aureus strains (ATCC 29213, ATCC 25923, A86, A48, 13 S2, S4, 124, and 265)	35–70	Reduction in intracellular ATP concentration, cell membrane hyperpolarization, and destruction of cell membrane	[15]
Fungi
C. albicans strains (SC5134, 8376, 6355, 4390, 6375, 5473, 6885, 2336, 9664, and 4647)	2–4	↑ of DPP3 gene caused an increase in farnesol production, ↓ of HWP1 gene caused detachment from the abiotic substrate	[21]
C. albicans strains (SC5134, SN250, cta4Δ/Δ, and yhb1Δ/Δ	4–8	↓ of YHB1 gene led to the intercellular accumulation of nitric oxide, which manifested nitrosative stress	[16]
A. terreus	2	↑ of adenylyl-cyclase-associated protein, which linked actin reorganization to Ras signaling led to elevated cAMP and caused ROS accumulation	[20]
C. albicans strains (YFC 497, YFC 803), C. glabrata YFC 501, C. krusei YFC 827, C. tropicalis YFC 052, C. parapsilosis YFC 826, S. cerevisiae YFC 250, T. cutaneum YFC 517, and A. fumigatus YFC 526	8–64	Shikonin and its derivative displayed better antifungal activity than fluconazole	[22]
C. albicans strains (Y0109, 21, 100, 103, 271, 876, 18, 38, and 953)	2–8	↓ of glycolysis-related (CDC19 and HXK2) and fermentation-related genes (ADH1 and ALD5) providing more electrons for the mitochondrial respiratory chain, which caused the accumulation of ROS	[19]
C. albicans SC5314	4	↑ of CaMCA1 led to mitochondrial-mediated intrinsic cell apoptosis	[23]
C. albicans strains (C5314, CASS1, and hst3Δ/pTET-HST3)	6–8	↓ of NAM resulted in suppression of deacetylation of H3K56	[17]

Here, ↑ = upregulation and ↓ = downregulation of a certain gene, which ultimately influences a particular pathway.