Table 1.

Toxic effects of microplastic exposure on laboratory mice.

Properties of Microplastics Used	Toxicity	Reference
Polystyrene microplastics (5–20 μm)	Accumulated in the kidney, liver, and intestine of mice, and the highest bioaccumulation factor was found in the intestine	[74]
Polystyrene microplastics (5 μm)	Accumulated in the intestinal tissues and also reduced intestinal mucus secretion and impaired intestinal barrier function Changes in the intestinal flora diversity with a significant decrease in actinomycetes Significant changes in metabolic pathways such as pyruvate metabolism, tyrosine metabolism, and fatty acid biosynthesis	[26]
Polystyrene nanoplastics (0.5 μm)	Increased liver weight, liver index, and liver function indicators Up-regulation of interferon-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-33 mRNA expression in non-parenchymal hepatocytes Down-regulation of IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-18, and transforming growth factor-β1 expression	[75]
Polystyrene microplastics (5 μm)	Accumulated in the liver tissue accompanied by tissue vacuolar degeneration, chronic inflammatory cell infiltration, and hepatocellular edema Decreased T-SOD, CAT, and GSH activities and increased MDA levels L02 hepatocyte rate of apoptosis increased	[76]
Polystyrene micro- and nanoplastics (0.5 μm and 50 μm)	Reduced body weight, liver weight, and lipid weight in the mice Decreased intestinal mucus secretion Relative abundance of Firmicutes and α-Protebacteri were reduced Lower liver triglyceride and total cholesterol levels Decreased mRNA levels of certain key genes associated with adipogenesis and triglyceride synthesis	[77]
Polystyrene microplastics (10–150 μm)	Increased abundance of Staphylococcus and decreased abundance of Paramecium Elevated IL-1α levels The small intestine showed a significant inflammatory response, as well as increased expression of TLR4, AP-1, and IRF526	[78]
Polystyrene microplastics (5 μm and 20 μm)	Accumulation in both the kidney and intestine, with tissue accumulation kinetics and distribution patterns dependent on microplastic particle size Caused disturbances in energy and fat metabolism, as well as causing oxidative stress and neurotoxic reactions	[24]
Polyethylene micro- and nanoplastics (3–16 μm, 100 nm, and 600 nm) Polystyrene micro- and nanoplastics (10 μm, 40 nm, and 250 nm)	Increased ROS generation	[79]
Polypropylene microplastics (<200 μm)	Elevated IL-6 and TNF-α levels Elevated ROS levels Caused erythrocyte hemolysis in a concentration-dependent manner Increased the secretion of histamine, which induces allergic reactions at the cellular level	[80]
Polystyrene microplastics (1 μm, 4 μm, and 10 μm)	Accumulation in the intestinal tract Causes a decrease in cell viability at higher concentrations Macrophage uptake of microplastics was followed by polarization	[81]
Polystyrene nanoplastics (23–26 nm)	Accumulation in the mouse brain Changes in anxiety-like behavior and anti-predator defense responses in the face of predators Reduced DPPH radical scavenging activity and reduced total GSH content Appearance of DNA damage	[82]
Polystyrene microplastics (5 μm)	Caused metabolic disorders, intestinal flora dysbiosis, and intestinal barrier dysfunction in the mother Caused intergenerational effects with long-term metabolic consequences in the F1 and F2 mice The possibility of hepatic lipid accumulation in the F1 generation mouse in adulthood	[83]