Table 4.
Deterioration of different cultural heritage substrate types by fungi.
| Deteriogenic Agents/Group | Genus | Substrate | Alteration Types | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ascomycota Phyllum | Acrodictys spp. | stone artifacts | [401] | |
| Dothideomycetes class | Aureobasidium spp. | black patina, black spots, biofilm formation, discolorations, stone erosion, and disintegration | [402,403,404] | |
| Capnobotryella spp. | black spots, crater shaped lesions, superficial deposit, and biofilm formation | [403,405] | ||
| Coniosporium spp. | black patina, black spots, pitting, exfoliation, superficial deposit, and biofilm formation | [403,406] | ||
| Phoma spp. | black spots, black patinas, exfoliation, pitting, superficial deposit, biofilm formation | [404,407,408] | ||
| Alternaria spp. | black spots, black patina, biofilm formation, black crusts | |||
| Cladosporium spp. | black spots, patinas, pitting, biofilm formation, erosion, discoloration, disintegration | |||
| Epicoccum spp. | black spots, black patinas, superficial deposit, biofilm formation with salt efflorescence | |||
| Eurotiomycetes class | Exophiala spp. | black patina, black spots, detachment of discolorations, visible damage | [389,406] | |
| Knuffia spp. | stone | black spots, patinas, pitting, discolorations, visible damage | [389,405,406,409] | |
| Lithophyla spp. | black patina, black spots | [245,402] | ||
| Dothideomycetes class |
Chaetomium spp., Aureobasidium spp., Epicoccum spp., Cladosporium spp. |
wall paintings | brown discolorations, degrade protein binders of the painted layer, which results in the lifting and separation of the painted layer from the support |
[86,410,411] |
| Eurotiomycetes class |
Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp. |
primary fresco deteriogens, damage of wall paintings due to its intensely sporulation degree |
[86,412] | |
| Zygomycetes class |
Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp., Actinomucor spp. |
surface contaminants | [413,414] | |
| Basidiomycetes class | Coprinus spp. | contamination | [413] | |
| Dothideomycetes and Eurotiomycetes classes |
A. alternata, A. flavus, A. niger, A. versicolor, Aureobasidium pullulans, Chaetomium globosum, C. cladosporoides, Eurotium chevalieri, and P. chrysogenum | canvas oil paintings | the detachment of the paint layer from the support, the loss of material due to the excretion of metabolites, esthetic changes of materials, biofilm formation, chromatic alteration of the painted surfaces and detachment of the support | [89,393,410] |
| Zygomycetes class |
Cunninghamella spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp. Phycomyces spp. |
dust deposits | [398] | |
| Basidiomycetes class | Puccinia spp. | contaminants | [415] | |
| Basidiomycetes class | Bjerkandera spp., Donkioporia spp., Fomes spp., Irpex spp., Phanerochaete spp., Pholiota spp., Pleurotus spp., Trametes spp. | wooden | white rot fungi complete depolymerization and degradation of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose components |
[86,416] |
| Eurotiomycetes class Sordariomycetes class |
Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., | [86] | ||
| Basidiomycetes class |
Antrodia spp., Coniophora spp., Coriolellus spp., Gloeophyllum spp., Paxillus spp., Poria spp., Postia spp., Serpula (Merulius) lacrymans |
brown rot fungi cellulose and hemicellulose decomposition and lignin degradation is restricted to methoxyl group demethylation |
[86,417] | |
| Dothideomycetes class | Alternaria spp., Stemphylium spp., | soft rot fungi cellulose and hemicellulose decomposition and lignin degradation is restricted to methoxyl group demethylation, leading to discoloration and cracking pattern | [86,392,417] | |
| Sordariomycetes class |
Chaetomium spp., Daldinia spp., Humicola spp., Xylaria spp. |
|||
| Eurotiomycetes Sordariomycetes and Dothideomycetes classes |
Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., Eurotium spp., Myxotrichum spp. Trichoderma spp., Chaetomium spp., Acremonium spp., Paecilomyces spp., Stachybotrys spp., Myrothecium spp., Cladosporium spp., Bipolaris spp., Aureobasidium spp., Alternaria spp., Epicoccum spp. |
paper and paper-based materials | pigments and organic acid production, brown to red spots (foxing) | [86,418,419,420,421,422] |
| Basidiomycetes classTritirachiomycetes classes |
Bjerkandera spp., Tritirachium spp. |
|||
| Zygomycetes class | Rhizopus arrhyzus | |||
| Eurotiomycetes and Sordariomycetes classes |
Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Microsporum spp., Trichophyton spp., Chaetomium spp., Fusarium spp., |
textiles | wool fibers degradation | [86,423] |
| Zygomycetes class | Rhizopus spp. | wool fibers degradation | [423] | |
| Eurotiomycetes class | Chaetomium globosum | silk deterioration, causing cracks and gaps in fibroin fibers | [424] | |
| Dothideomycetes and Eurotiomycetes classes |
Alternaria spp., Aureobasidium spp., Cladosporium spp., Epicoccum spp., Penicillium spp. |
parchment | [86,425,426] | |
| Ascomycota phyllum | Diploospora rosea | the detachment of large parts of the artwork’s preparative layer and the overlying illumination. | [427] |