Table 3.
Association between biological age measures and risk of cancer in UK Biobank.
| Cancer site | KDM residual | PhenoAge residual | HD (log) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HR per 1 SD increase (95% CI) | P | HR per 1 SD increase (95% CI) | P | HR per 1 SD increase (95% CI) | P | |
| Any cancer | ||||||
| Age- and sex-adjusted modela | 1.06 (1.05, 1.07)* | <0.001 | 1.10 (1.09, 1.11)* | <0.001 | 1.04 (1.03, 1.05)* | <0.001 |
| Multivariable modelb | 1.04 (1.03, 1.05)* | <0.001 | 1.09 (1.07, 1.10)* | <0.001 | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)* | 0.002 |
| Breast cancer in women | ||||||
| Age-adjusted modela | 1.02 (1.00, 1.05) | 0.09 | 1.05 (1.03, 1.08)* | <0.001 | 1.02 (0.99, 1.05) | 0.26 |
| Multivariable modelb | 1.01 (0.98, 1.04) | 0.69 | 1.06 (1.03, 1.09)* | <0.001 | 1.00 (0.97, 1.03) | 0.99 |
| Breast cancer-specific modelc | 1.01 (0.98, 1.04) | 0.51 | 1.05 (1.02, 1.08)* | <0.001 | 1.00 (0.97, 1.03) | 0.86 |
| Prostate cancer in men | ||||||
| Age-adjusted modela | 0.92 (0.90, 0.94)* | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.91, 0.96)* | <0.001 | 0.93 (0.91, 0.96)* | <0.001 |
| Multivariable modelb | 0.94 (0.92, 0.97)* | <0.001 | 0.95 (0.93, 0.97)* | <0.001 | 0.96 (0.93, 0.98)* | <0.001 |
| Prostate cancer-specific modeld | 0.96 (0.93, 0.98)* | 0.002 | 0.96 (0.94, 0.99)* | 0.003 | 0.97 (0.95, 1.00) | 0.044 |
| Lung cancer | ||||||
| Age- and sex-adjusted modela | 1.44 (1.39, 1.50)* | <0.001 | 1.58 (1.53, 1.63)* | <0.001 | 1.22 (1.17, 1.27)* | <0.001 |
| Multivariable modelb | 1.29 (1.24, 1.35)* | <0.001 | 1.35 (1.30, 1.40)* | <0.001 | 1.12 (1.08, 1.18)* | <0.001 |
| Lung cancer-specific modele | 1.29 (1.24, 1.35)* | <0.001 | 1.35 (1.30, 1.40)* | <0.001 | 1.13 (1.08, 1.18)* | <0.001 |
| Colorectal cancer | ||||||
| Age- and sex-adjusted modela | 1.10 (1.07, 1.14)* | <0.001 | 1.09 (1.06, 1.13)* | <0.001 | 1.13 (1.09, 1.17)* | <0.001 |
| Multivariable modelb | 1.09 (1.05, 1.13)* | <0.001 | 1.09 (1.05, 1.12)* | <0.001 | 1.11 (1.07, 1.15)* | <0.001 |
| Colorectal cancer-specific modelf | 1.09 (1.05, 1.12)* | <0.001 | 1.08 (1.05, 1.12)* | <0.001 | 1.10 (1.07, 1.15)* | <0.001 |
| Melanoma | ||||||
| Age- and sex-adjusted modela | 0.91 (0.86, 0.95)* | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.89, 0.98) | 0.008 | 0.93 (0.89, 0.98) | 0.006 |
| Multivariable modelb | 0.95 (0.90, 1.00) | 0.040 | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) | 0.85 | 0.95 (0.91, 1.01) | 0.08 |
| Melanoma-specific modelg | 0.95 (0.90, 1.00) | 0.062 | 1.01 (0.96, 1.07) | 0.62 | 0.95 (0.91, 1.01) | 0.09 |
CI confidence interval, HD homeostatic dysregulation, HR hazard ratio, KDM Klemera-Doubal method, SD standard deviation.
aAge- and sex-adjusted model: adjusted for age (time scale), birth year (1930–1939, 1940–1949, 1950–1959, ≥1960), and sex (except for breast cancer and prostate cancer).
bMultivariable model: age- and sex-adjusted model + baseline assessment center (England, Wales, Scotland), ethnic background (White, Asian, Black, others), body mass index (underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese), smoking status (never, previous, current), physical activity level (low, moderate, high), alcohol consumption (less than 3 times a month, 1–4 times a week, daily or almost daily), education level (high, intermediate, low), deprivation index quintiles (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th).
cBreast cancer-specific model: multivariable model + family history of breast cancer (no, yes), ever had breast cancer screening (no, yes), menopause (premenopausal, postmenopausal), hormone replacement therapy use (never, ever), oral contraceptive use (never, ever), parity (0, 1–2, ≥3).
dProstate cancer-specific model: multivariable model + family history of prostate cancer (no, yes), ever had prostate-specific antigen test (no, yes), self-reported diabetes (no, yes).
eLung cancer-specific model: multivariable model + family history of lung cancer (no, yes).
fColorectal cancer-specific model: multivariable model + family history of colorectal cancer (no, yes), ever had colorectal cancer screening (no, yes), fresh vegetable and fruit intake (<5 portions a day, ≥5 portions a day), red meat intake (less than twice a week, twice a week or more), processed meat intake (less than twice a week, twice a week or more).
gMelanoma cancer-specific model: multivariable model + time spent outdoors during summer (1–2 h/day, 3–5 h/day, >5 h/day), use of sun/UV protection (never/rarely, sometimes, most of the time, always, do not go out in sunshine), sunburn during childhood (no, yes), solarium/sunlamp use (no, yes), ease of skin tanning (very tanned, moderately tanned, mildly or occasionally tanned, never tan but only burn), skin color (black/brown, light/dark olive, fair, very fair), hair color (black/dark brown/other, light brown, blonde/red).
*Significant after Bonferroni correction at P < 0.05/15 (i.e., 5 cancers × 3 biological age measures).