Table 1.
Descriptive characteristics of participants by self-reported race/ethnicity.
| Total sample (n = 8510)* | Non-Hispanic Black (n = 4027, 47.3%) | Hispanic (n = 2428, 28.6%) | Non-Hispanic White (n = 1007, 11.8%) | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Education | <0.001 | ||||
| Elementary school only | 546 (6.4%) | 85 (2.1%) | 406 (16.7%) | 16 (1.6%) | |
| Some secondary school | 2186 (25.7%) | 882 (21.9%) | 900 (37.1%) | 180 (17.9%) | |
| High school graduate | 2825 (33.2%) | 1472 (36.6%) | 664 (27.3%) | 362 (35.9%) | |
| Some college | 1659 (19.5%) | 216 (23.6%) | 308 (12.7%) | 216 (21.4%) | |
| Completed college or higher education | 1294 (15.2%) | 638 (15.8%) | 150 (6.2%) | 233 (23.1%) | |
| Yearly income category | <0.001 | ||||
| <$15,000/year | 2687 (31.6%) | 1349 (33.5%) | 756 (31.1%) | 304 (30.2%) | |
| ≥$15,000–<$30,000/year | 1632 (19.2%) | 852 (21.2%) | 440 (18.1%) | 136 (13.5%) | |
| ≥$30,000–<$50,000/year | 677 (8.0%) | 336 (8.3%) | 132 (5.4%) | 97 (9.6%) | |
| ≥$50,000/year | 480 (5.6%) | 146 (3.6%) | 56 (2.3%) | 195 (19.4%) | |
| Do not know | 3034 (35.7%) | 1344 (33.4%) | 1044 (43.0%) | 275 (27.3%) | |
| Immigration | <0.001 | ||||
| Born in the US | 5213 (61.3%) | 2244 (55.7%) | 1962 (80.8%) | 174 (79.5%) | |
| Born outside the US | 3292 (38.7%) | 1781 (44.2%) | 463 (19.1%) | 833 (20.5%) | |
| Refuse to answer | 5 (0.1%) | 2 (0.005%) | 3 (0.1%) | 0 | |
| Maternal age at delivery (Median, IQR) | 27.8 (23.0, 32.9) | 28.4 (23.1, 33.6) | 26.5 (22.2, 31.6) | 28.0 (24.0, 32.6) | <0.001 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (Median, IQR) | 24.7 (21.6, 29.0) | 25.7 (22.3, 30.0) | 24.5 (21.8, 28.3) | 23.5 (20.9, 27.5) | <0.001 |
| Parity | <0.001 | ||||
| Primiparous | 4847 (57.0%) | 2375 (59.0%) | 1438 (59.2%) | 493 (49.0%) | |
| Multiparous | 3663 (43.0%) | 1652 (41.0%) | 990 (40.8%) | 514 (51.0%) | |
| Sex of child | 0.74 | ||||
| Male | 4370 (50.0%) | 2053 (49.7%) | 1248 (50.0%) | 512 (49.6%) | |
| Female | 4364 (50.0%) | 2075 (50.3%) | 1246 (50.0%) | 520 (50.4%) | |
| Tobacco | <0.001 | ||||
| Never | 6097 (32.4%) | 2990 (74.9%) | 1968 (81.8%) | 325 (32.4%) | |
| Only before pregnancy | 1313 (15.6%) | 604 (15.1%) | 309 (12.8%) | 252 (25.1%) | |
| Smoked during pregnancy | 1032 (12.2%) | 399 (10.0%) | 130 (5.4%) | 427 (42.5%) | |
| Alcohol | <0.001 | ||||
| None during pregnancy | 7747 (91.0%) | 3682 (91.4%) | 2266 (93.3%) | 841 (83.5%) | |
| Drank during pregnancy | 763 (9.0%) | 345 (8.6%) | 162 (6.7%) | 166 (16.5%) | |
| Cannabis | <0.001 | ||||
| None during pregnancy | 8178 (96.1%) | 3821 (94.9%) | 2391 (98.5%) | 951 (94.4%) | |
| Cannabis during pregnancy | 332 (3.9%) | 206 (5.1%) | 37 (1.5%) | 56 (5.6%) | |
| Opioids | <0.001 | ||||
| None during pregnancy | 8170 (96.0%) | 3997 (99.3%) | 2393 (98.6%) | 749 (74.4%) | |
| Opioids during pregnancy | 340 (4.0%) | 30 (0.7%) | 35 (1.4%) | 258 (25.6%) | |
| Cocaine | <0.001 | ||||
| None during pregnancy | 8420 (98.9%) | 3991 (99.1%) | 2412 (99.3%) | 971 (99.8%) | |
| Cocaine during pregnancy | 90 (1.1%) | 36 (0.9%) | 16 (0.7%) | 36 (0.2%) | |
| Any substance use during pregnancy† | 2167 (25.5%) | 945 (23.5%) | 382 (15.7%) | 633 (62.9%) | <0.001 |
| Smoking and additional substances | <0.001 | ||||
| Only smoking during pregnancy | 952 (10.9%) | 233 (22.6%) | 174 (7.0%) | 430 (15.2%) | |
| Any substances except tobacco during pregnancy | 568 (6.5%) | 113 (10.9%) | 132 (5.3%) | 211 (7.5%) | |
| Smoking and at least 1 additional substance during pregnancy | 730 (8.4%) | 302 (29.3%) | 95 (3.8%) | 277 (9.8%) | |
| Illicit substance use during pregnancy‡ | 656 (7.7%) | 248 (6.2%) | 72 (3.0%) | 290 (28.8%) | <0.001 |
| Hypertension | 1446 (17.0%) | 815 (20.2%) | 325 (13.4%) | 138 (13.7%) | <0.001 |
| Pre-eclampsia | 832 (9.8%) | 459 (11.4%) | 216 (8.9%) | 68 (6.8%) | <0.001 |
| Spontaneous preterm birth | 1522 (17.9%) | 736 (18.3%) | 401 (16.5%) | 213 (21.2%) | 0.006 |
| Medically indicated preterm birth | 800 (9.2%) | 420 (10.2%) | 189 (7.6%) | 87 (8.4%) | 0.004 |
| Gestational age (weeks, median (IQR)) | 38.9 (36.7, 40.1) | 38.6 (36.6, 40.1) | 39.0 (37.0, 40.1) | 38.7 (36.4, 40.0) | <0.001 |
P value reflects χ2 tests for categorical variables and one-way ANOVA tests for continuous variables.
*
We report non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white subgroups, however an additional 1048 individuals reported race/ethnicity as: Asian, Pacific Islander, Cape Verdean, Native American/American Indian, Alaskan Native, multiracial/mixed race, and other categories. These additional groups did not have sufficient sample size as stratified categories.
†
Smoking, alcohol, cannabis, opioids, or cocaine.
‡
Cannabis, opioids, or cocaine (regardless of drinking alcohol or smoking tobacco during pregnancy).