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Cd-induced autophagy. Cd-induced ROS activates the PINK1/Parkin and LKB1/AMPK pathways along with GSK-3β, mediating mitophagy and cellular autophagy. The increase in Ca2+ induced by Cd can act as an upstream signal to regulate ERK and VMP1, which in turn induce autophagy. Additionally, Cd mediates autophagic cell death through the PPP3/Akt/TFE3 and AMPK/FOXO3a pathways. Cd may also inhibit autophagy by suppressing Rab7
