Fig. 8.

The common pathways of autophagy regulation by metals/NPs. The regulatory process involves the activation of Akt/mTOR, PINK1/Parkin, and MAPK signaling pathways, as well as the further regulation of autophagy proteins by ROS. ROS induced by metals (Cd, Cr, and As) and NPs may be implicated in multiple modes of autophagy regulation. Metals (Cd, Pb, and As) and NPs mediate mitophagy via PINK1/Parkin. Akt/mTOR can be regulated by ROS and ER stress, and metals (Cr, Pb, As, MeHg, and Al) and NPs mediate Akt/mTOR-induced autophagy. MAPK signaling pathway-related ERK, JNK, and p38 act as upstream signals to regulate LC3, Beclin-1, and p62. Metals (As and MeHg) and NPs regulate autophagy by the MAPK pathway