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. 2023 Jun 30;13:10643. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-37347-y

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Morphological analysis by AFM (A–D) and SEM (a–d) of the membrane surfaces used for LFT construction. NC membrane (A and a), conjugate pad before (B and b) and after loading of the detector conjugate (C and c), test line with capture conjugate (D and d), test line with sandwich complex (E and e). Detector conjugate: AuNPs-Nbs on the conjugate pad. Capture conjugate: AuNPs-ACE2 on the test line. Sandwich complex: S1 antigen in positive samples, sandwiched between the detector and capture conjugates on the test line.