Table 3.

Major glucose metabolism and diabetes-associated signaling pathways affected by heavy metals and metalloids.

Heavy metals and metalloids	Major signaling pathways associated with glucose metabolism and diabetes
Arsenic	•PI3K/AKT [33], [141] •PPARγ [138] •p38 MAPK [141] •NF-κB/PTEN [139] •Pentose Phosphate Pathway [139] •Pentose/Glucuronate Interconversion [143], [144] •Pro-inflammatory cytokines [139]
Cadmium	•PPARγ [149] •C/EBPα [149] •NF-κB/PTEN [152] •Gluconeogenesis [41], [148] •Glycogenolysis [169] •Pro-inflammatory cytokines [152]
Chromium	•PI3K/AKT [156] •AMPK [156] •JNK MAPK [156] •P-Tyr Phosphatase Inhibition [153]
Iron	•HIF-1α [57] •AMPK [57] •Pro-inflammatory cytokines [159]
Mercury	•PI3K/AKT [163], [164]
Nickel	•Gluconeogenesis [72] •Glycogenolysis [72]
Vanadium	•P-Tyr Phosphatase Inhibition [167]