TABLE 1.

Astrocyte phenotypes in experimental diabetes models.

Species (sex), age/weight	Model establish	Astrocytes		Molecular mechanisms	References
		Location	Phenotype
C57BL/6 mice (male), 4 weeks/20–25 g	STZ (MLDS for 5 days, 50 mg/kg)	Hippocampus	GFAP↑ GRP78↓ ROS ↑ HO‐1↓	Akt↓	Wong et al. 55
C57BL/6J mice (male), 8–10 weeks/NM	STZ (MLDS for 5 days, 40 mg/kg) or (SIJ, 150 mg/kg) + HFD	Hypothalamus	GFAP↑ Glycolytic shift↑ Lactate surge↑ TNF‐α↑ Il‐1β ↑ Il‐6 ↑	PDK2 and p‐PDH protein↑	Rahman et al. 54
C57BL6/J mice (male), 6 weeks/NM	HFHFD for 24 weeks	Hippocampus	GFAP↑ TNF‐α IL‐1β ↑ BBB integrity ↓	NM	Takechi et al. 56
C57BL/6 N mice (male), 6 weeks/NM	HFrD	Hippocampus	GFAP↑	NM	Yu et al. 57
db/db mice (male), NM/NM	Spontaneous diabetes	Hippocampus	GFAP↑	Synaptophysin↓ JAK2/STAT3↑	Zhang et al. 58
db/db mice (male), 8 weeks/NM	Spontaneous diabetes	Cortical gray matter	Astrocyte activation with detachment and retraction from mural cells	NM	Hayden et al. 59
KK‐Ay mice (male), 3 months/NM	HFD	Hippocampus	Size of astrocytes reduced; GFAP↓ GLUT1↓ EAAT2‐BDNF↓ GDNF↓ IL‐1β TNF‐α↑	NM	Shi et al. 60
Wistar rats (male), 3 months/200–250 g	STZ (SIJ, 45 mg/kg)	Hippocampus	GFAP ↑ S100β ↑	NM	Nagayach et al. 61
Wistar rats (male), NM/250 g	STZ (SIJ, 70 mg/kg)	Hypothalamus	GFAP↑	NM	Lechuga‐Sancho et al. 62
WKY rats (male), 8 weeks/160–270 g	STZ (SIJ, 75 mg/kg)	Hippocampus	GFAP‐S100B↓ GLUT1↑ GLT1‐GLAST‐GluN1↓	AGE‐RAGE	Nardin et al. 63
SD rats (male), NM/190–240 g	STZ (SIJ, 45 mg/kg)	Hippocampus	GFAP↑ S100b↓	NM	Lebed et al. 64
SD rats (male), NM/180–200 g	STZ (SIJ, 70 mg/kg)	MCx	GFAP↑ TNF‐α↑ IL‐1β↑	NM	Lu et al. 65
SD rats (male), NM/200–220 g	STZ (SIJ, 60 mg/kg)	vlPAG	GFAP↑	NM	Liu et al. 66
ICR mice (male), NM/18–22 g	STZ (SIJ, 150 mg/kg)	Hippocampus	GFAP↑ IL‐1β↑ IL‐4↑ IL‐6↑ TNF‐α↑	NM	Chu et al. 67

Note: Compared with the nondiabetic group, ↓ indicates reduction, ↑ indicates increase while – indicates no statistical change.

Abbreviations: AGE, advanced glycation end products; EAAT2, recombinant excitatory amino acid transporter 2; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; GLAST, glutamate/aspartate transporter; GLT1, glutamate transporter subtype 1; GluN1, anti‐NMDA Receptor 1; GLUT1, glucose transporter 1; GRP78, glucose‐regulated protein 78; HFFD, high‐fat and high‐fructose; HFrD, high‐fructose diet; IL‐1β, interleukin‐1β; IL‐4, interleukin‐4; IL‐6, interleukin‐6; JAK2, janus tyrosine kinase 2; MCx, motor cortex; MLDS, multiple low doses; NM, not mentioned; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase; PDK, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase; RAGE, recombinant receptor for advanced glycation endproducts; SD, Sprague Dawley; SIJ, single intraperitoneal injection; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; STZ, streptozotocin; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; vlPAG, ventrolateral region of periaqueductal gray; WKY, Wistar‐Kyoto.