Table 2.

Multiple treatment strategies for addressing irAEs.

Therapeutic methods	Specific details
Pre-treatment preparation	Detection of intestinal inflammatory markers like fecal lactoferrin and calprotectin; Screening for Clostridium difficile and CMV infections in feces; Determination of celiac disease by tTG-IgA; Early use of flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy with biopsy (53).
Symptomatic treatment	A low-fiber dietary; Antidiarrheal drugs like loperamide; Add mesalamine or cholestyramine if necessary.
Corticosteroid	Individualized hormone application; Use the lowest effective dose of corticosteroids for the shortest period of time (54).
TNF-blocking antibodies	Combined use of ICIs with anti-TNF agents such as infliximab or etarnercept (56, 58).
Vedolizumab	Vedolizumab therapy in ICI-induced steroid-refractory colitis or non-responders to anti–TNF-α (60, 61); Early introduction (within 10 days of the onset) of VDZ and sustained 3 or more infusions (62). Available for tuberculosis patients.
IL-1R antagonist	Reversal of dual ICIs-induced ileitis with anakinra (16).
IL-6R inhibitor	Use of Tocilizumab or Sarilumab for refractory irAEs (14, 37, 67).
Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor	Application of the potent JAK-selective inhibitor tofacitinib in refractory immune-associated colitis (69).
Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)	Remodeling of the gut microbiota by receiving intestinal flora from a healthy donor (70, 71).
Traditional Chinese Medicine	Joint application anti–PD-1 drugs with Baicalin (74), Brucea javanica oil emulsion (BJOE) (75) and Gegen Qinlian decoction (76).
Artificial intelligence (AI)	As an assistive technology, AI can be combined with big data to build an AI-based clinical decision-making system for minimal adverse reactions (77, 78).