Table 1.
Comparisons of racial/ethnic groups
| Variables | Race/Ethnicity | Statistical Significance and Effect Size Estimates | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||
| Social Determinants of Healtd | White N = 7,244 |
Black N = 2,306 |
Hispanic / Latinx N = 1,593 |
p | Black vs. White Cohen’s d | Hispanic / Latinx vs. White Cohen’s d | |||
|
| |||||||||
| M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | ||||
|
| |||||||||
| Education (Years) | 13.49 | (2.53) | 12.59 | (2.85) | 10.07 | (4.46) | <.001 | 0.35** | 1.15**** |
| Mother’s Education (Years) | 11.03 | (3.03) | 9.92 | (3.58) | 6.03 | (4.55) | <.001 | 0.35** | 1.50**** |
| Father’s Education (Years) | 10.65 | (3.63) | 8.98 | (3.98) | 6.20 | (4.82) | <.001 | 0.45** | 1.16**** |
| Number of Years Worked | 34.82 | (16.45) | 26.54 | (17.73) | 21.06 | (16.88) | <.001 | 0.49** | 0.83**** |
| Marital Status | <.001 | ||||||||
| Married or Partnered | 63% | 4,534 | 42% | 968 | 59% | 943 | 0.37** | 0.06* | |
| Divorced/Separated | 13% | 917 | 26% | 601 | 18% | 287 | 0.32** | 0.12* | |
| Widowed | 21% | 1,517 | 19% | 447 | 16% | 252 | 0.04* | 0.10* | |
| Never Married | 4% | 270 | 12% | 285 | 7% | 107 | 0.32** | 0.12* | |
| Veteran Status | 20% | 1,478 | 15% | 340 | 8% | 127 | <.001 | 0.12* | 0.24** |
| U.S. Geographic Location | <.001 | ||||||||
| Northeast | 14% | 1,002 | 15% | 357 | 14% | 221 | 0.04* | 0.00* | |
| Midwest | 28% | 1,995 | 17% | 385 | 5% | 84 | 0.22** | 0.41** | |
| South | 40% | 2,915 | 60% | 1,384 | 40% | 629 | 0.35** | 0.02* | |
| West | 18% | 1,325 | 8% | 179 | 40% | 642 | 0.24** | 0.41** | |
| Other | <1% | 4 | 0% | 0 | 1% | 14 | 0.02* | 0.14* | |
| Nativity Status (Foreign-Born) | 5% | 326 | 7% | 154 | 61% | 968 | <.001 | 0.08* | 1.54**** |
| Annual Household Income: ln(USD) | $10.80 | (0.99) | $10.26 | (1.16) | $10.13 | (1.07) | <.001 | 0.52*** | 0.66*** |
| Annual Household Income: median USD | $47,673 | $28,975 | $25,200 | ||||||
| Covered by Current or Previous Employer | 21% | 1,525 | 24% | 550 | 18% | 275 | <.001 | 0.06* | 0.06* |
| Covered by Any Government Program | 84% | 6,007 | 73% | 1,665 | 67% | 1,045 | <.001 | 0.22**** | 0.32** |
| Medicare | 81% | 5,829 | 65% | 1,471 | 58% | 902 | <.001 | 0.35** | 0.43** |
| Medicaid | 6% | 451 | 19% | 434 | 26% | 398 | <.001 | 0.39** | 0.52*** |
| Veterans Administration | 7% | 502 | 7% | 170 | 4% | 55 | <.001 | 0.02* | 0.10* |
|
| |||||||||
| Demographics | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | p | d | d |
|
| |||||||||
| Age (Years) | 71.43 | (9.79) | 65.99 | (10.46) | 65.48 | (10.48) | <.001 | 0.55*** | 0.60*** |
| Age Group | <.001 | 0.41** | 0.39** | ||||||
| Silent Generation (1928–1945) | 76% | 4,298 | 15% | 837 | 10% | 544 | |||
| Baby Boomers (1946–1964) | 54% | 2,946 | 27% | 1,469 | 19% | 1,049 | |||
| Sex (% Male) | 43% | 3,115 | 40% | 918 | 44% | 708 | .007 | 0.06* | 0.02* |
| Spanish Survey Language Preference | <1% | 13 | 0% | 0 | 50% | 797 | <.001 | 0.04* | 1.76**** |
|
| |||||||||
| Physical Health | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | p | d | d |
|
| |||||||||
| Self-Rated Health (1 [Excellent] - 5 [Poor]) | 2.82 | (1.03) | 3.10 | (1.04) | 3.24 | (1.07) | <.001 | 0.27** | 0.40** |
| Body Mass Index | 28.23 | (5.91) | 30.19 | (6.60) | 29.23 | (5.76) | <.001 | 0.32** | 0.17* |
| # Impaired ADLs | 0.26 | (0.77) | 0.44 | (0.99) | 0.46 | (1.07) | <.001 | 0.21** | 0.23** |
| # Impaired IADLs | 0.23 | (0.67) | 0.34 | (0.85) | 0.40 | (0.96) | <.001 | 0.15* | 0.23** |
| # Chronic Conditions (of 8) | 2.43 | (1.52) | 2.37 | (1.53) | 2.09 | (1.55) | <.001 | 0.04* | 0.22** |
| Hypertension | 62% | 4,450 | 76% | 1,740 | 61% | 974 | <.001 | 0.26** | 0.00* |
| Diabetes Mellitus | 24% | 1,722 | 34% | 785 | 37% | 583 | <.001 | 0.20** | 0.22** |
| Cancer/Malignancy^ | 20% | 1,462 | 13% | 310 | 9% | 144 | <.001 | 0.14* | 0.22** |
| Chronic Lung Disease | 12% | 895 | 10% | 225 | 7% | 109 | <.001 | 0.06* | 0.14* |
| Cardiovascular Disease | 30% | 2,183 | 22% | 506 | 18% | 289 | <.001 | 0.16* | 0.20** |
| Stroke or TIA | 9% | 685 | 10% | 234 | 7% | 111 | .002 | 0.02* | 0.06* |
| Psychiatric Disorder | 20% | 1,455 | 15% | 341 | 21% | 327 | <.001 | 0.12* | 0.00* |
| Arthritis/Rheumatism | 65% | 4,720 | 58% | 1,326 | 49% | 785 | <.001 | 0.14* | 0.26** |
| Ever Diagnosed with a Sleep Disorder | 16% | 1,187 | 16% | 359 | 14% | 223 | .05 | 0.02* | 0.06* |
|
| |||||||||
| Mental Health & Cognition | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | p | d | d |
|
| |||||||||
| CES-D 8 Total Score | 1.29 | (1.86) | 1.73 | (1.97) | 1.89 | (2.24) | <.001 | 0.23** | 0.31** |
| Clinical Depression (CES-D 8 Score ≥ 3) | 18% | 1,331 | 26% | 590 | 28% | 452 | <.001 | 0.16* | 0.20** |
| Felt Lonely (% Yes) | 15% | 1,121 | 20% | 453 | 22% | 352 | <.001 | 0.10* | 0.14* |
| Total Cognition (TICS-M) | 22.93 | (4.69) | 20.12 | (5.22) | 19.87 | (5.06) | <.001 | 0.58*** | 0.64*** |
| Mental Status Summary Score | 13.10 | (2.17) | 11.52 | (2.77) | 11.33 | (2.72) | <.001 | 0.68*** | 0.78*** |
| Total Word Recall | 9.83 | (3.34) | 8.61 | (3.32) | 8.53 | (3.24) | <.001 | 0.37** | 0.39** |
| Immediate Word Recall | 5.39 | (1.64) | 4.99 | (1.63) | 4.75 | (1.62) | <.001 | 0.24** | 0.39** |
| Delayed Word Recall | 4.44 | (1.92) | 3.61 | (1.96) | 3.78 | (1.85) | <.001 | 0.43** | 0.34** |
| Ever Diagnosed with ADRD | 2% | 164 | 3% | 61 | 3% | 54 | .03 | 0.02* | 0.06* |
|
| |||||||||
| Health Behaviors & Healthcare Utilization (Prior 2 Years) |
M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | M / % | (SD) / N | p | d | d |
|
| |||||||||
| Ever Smoked Cigarettes | 56% | 4,049 | 54% | 1,247 | 50% | 798 | <.001 | 0.04* | 0.08* |
| # Days/Week Alcohol Consumption | 1.40 | (2.20) | 0.81 | (1.57) | 0.71 | (1.48) | <.001 | 0.28** | 0.33** |
| Any Physical Activity ≥ Once/Week† | 72% | 5,169 | 64% | 1,463 | 68% | 1,071 | <.001 | 0.14* | 0.06* |
| Hospital Stay (% Yes) | 28% | 2,031 | 28% | 628 | 21% | 329 | <.001 | 0.02* | 0.12* |
| # of Hospital Stays | 0.54 | (1.72) | 0.61 | (2.53) | 0.47 | (2.50) | .12 | 0.03* | 0.04* |
| Nursing Home Stay (% Yes) | 4% | 310 | 3% | 71 | 2% | 27 | <.001 | 0.06* | 0.10* |
| # of Nursing Home Stays | 0.06 | (0.61) | 0.05 | (0.42) | 0.02 | (0.18) | .008 | 0.03* | 0.08* |
| Doctor Visit (% Yes) | 95% | 6,845 | 89% | 2,040 | 76% | 1,200 | <.001 | 0.20** | 0.54*** |
| # of Doctor Visits | 10.61 | (17.15) | 9.35 | (23.17) | 6.92 | (16.50) | <.001 | 0.07* | 0.22** |
| Dental Visit (% Yes) | 69% | 4,988 | 51% | 1,173 | 57% | 900 | <.001 | 0.32** | 0.20** |
| Utilized Home Health Care (% Yes) | 9% | 625 | 10% | 239 | 7% | 103 | <.001 | 0.06* | 0.06* |
| Received Outpatient Surgery (% Yes) | 24% | 1,735 | 15% | 346 | 13% | 211 | <.001 | 0.18* | 0.20** |
| Regular Use of Prescription Drugs (% Yes) | 86% | 6,248 | 82% | 1,890 | 76% | 1,200 | <.001 | 0.10* | 0.22** |
Note. Denominators used to calculate proportions excluded those with missingness.
excludes skin cancer. p-values come from Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables.
= small effect size (d < 0.20),
= small-to-medium effect size (0.20 ≤ d < 0.50)
= medium effect size (0.50 ≤ d < 0.80),
= large effect size (d ≥ 0.80). Effect sizes are given in the absolute value of Cohen’s d (negative values were not reported for ease of interpretation).
= Physical activity included vigorous, moderate, or light activities that occurred at least once per week. Silent Generation and Baby Boomer adults were summed by the row and not by the column. Marital status is truncated in this table for ease of interpretation, but all levels were analyzed with the chi-square tests in Table 1. Household income reflects total income for the last calendar year and is the sum of the participant and spouse earnings, pensions and annuities, Social Security Income and Social Security Disability, Social Security retirement, unemployment and workers compensation, other government transfers, household capital income, and other income. Reported or imputed household income of $0 was set to missing (n = 176) in order for natural-log transformation to occur. Total Cognition [Range 0–35] (Mental Status + Total Word Recall), Mental Status [Range 0–15] (serial 7’s (0–5 points)), backward counting from 20 (0–2 points), object (0–2 points), date (0–4 points), and U.S. President/Vice President naming tasks (0–2 points)), Total Word Recall [Range 0–20] (Immediate + Delayed Word Recall), Immediate Word Recall [Range 0–10] (count of correctly identified words from a 10-word list of nouns), and Delayed Word Recall [Range 0–10] (count of correctly identified words from a 10-word list of nouns after 5 minutes during which the participant answered other survey questions).
Abbreviations: ADL = Activities of Daily Living. ADRD = Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias. CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression. IADL = Instrumental Activities of Daily Living. TICS-M = Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status – Modified. “ln” = natural logarithm.