Table 3. Preclinical shock wave therapy on ED biotherapeutics.

Species	Type of ED	Parameter of therapy	Target signaling	Treatment protocol	Reference
Rat	Type 1 diabetic ED	ICP-MAP, nNOS, eNOS phosphorylation, endothelial and smooth muscle content	Nerve regeneration, recruitment of endogenous MSCs, TGF-β1/Smad/CTGF, SDF-1 signaling pathway	300 shocks each time, three times a week for two weeks	[73,74,75]
Rat	Type 1 diabetic ED	ICP-MAP, eNOS phosphorylation, endothelial and smooth muscle content	nNOS, eNOS expression and VEGF signaling pathway	300 shocks each time, three times a week for two weeks	[76]
Rat	Type 2 diabetic ED	ICP-MAP	NO/cGMP Pathway	300 shocks at a frequency of 2 Hz, 2 sessions/week for three weeks, repeated after a three week no-treatment interval	[77]
Rat	CNI-ED	ICP-MAP, nNOS, schwann cell	nNOS, Erk1/2 signaling pathway	300 shocks each time, two times a week for four weeks	[78,79,80]
Rat	Age-associated ED	Angiogenesis, progenitor cells, schwann cell	Erk1/2 signaling pathway	300 or 500 shocks each time, two times a week for four weeks	[81]

ED, erectile dysfunction; ICP-MAP, intracavernosal pressure-mean arterial pressure; nNOS, neuronal nitric oxide synthase; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; NO, nitric oxide; cGMP, cyclic guanosine monophosphate; MSC, mesenchymal stem cell; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-beta; CTGF, connective tissue growth factor; SDF-1, stromal cell-derived factor-1; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.