Table 1.

Effects of circadian environmental manipulations on molecular and behavioral phenotypes.

Manipulation	Affected region/system	Cell-type	Species	Molecular/cellular phenotype	Behavioral phenotype	Reference
Lesions	SCN	N/A	Rat	N/A	Reduced immobility in FST; Decreased behavioral despair	Arushanyan and Popov (1995) and Tataroǧlu et al. (2004)
T22 light/dark cycle	SCN	N/A	Rat	Forced desynchrony of neuronal oscillators	Increased immobility in FST	Ben-Hamo et al. (2017)
Dim light at night	SCN	N/A	Mouse	Altered clock genes expression	Altered feeding behavior and increased body weight	Fonken et al. (2013)
Constant light	N/A	N/A	Mouse	Glucocorticoids concentration	Increasing depressive-like and decreasing anxiety-like responses	Fonken et al. (2009)
3 h light in the subjective night phase	SCN	GABA and VIP	Mouse	Changes in mPSCs frequencies	N/A	Cheng et al. (2018)
Long/short photoperiod	SCN	GABA, VIP, NMS	Mouse	Phase distribution, neurotransmitter switching	Circadian locomotor activity	VanderLeest et al. (2007), Evans et al. (2013), and Porcu et al. (2022)
Long/short photoperiod	PVN	SST/ DA, CRH	Mouse	Neurotransmitter switching, CRF release, neuronal activity	Depressive-like and decreasing anxiety-like responses	Dulcis et al. (2013) and Porcu et al. (2022)
Chronic mild stress	SCN	N/A	Mouse	Altered clock gene expression	Increased anxiety, depression-related behaviors	Logan et al. (2015)
Optogenetic activation	SCN	GABA	Mouse	Active phase resulted in a shortened period	Enhanced anxiety responses.	Vadnie et al. (2022)
Electrical stimulation of DNR	SCN	N/A	Hamster	Reduces light-induced fos protein	Causes circadian activity rhythm phase shifts	Morin and Meyer-Bernstein (1999)
SSRI	SCN	N/A	Rat	Phase advance in neuronal firing	N/A	Sprouse et al. (2006)
Chronic mild stress	NAc	N/A	Mouse	Altered clock gene expression	Increased anxiety and depression-like behavior	Logan et al. (2015)
Learned helplessness	NAc	N/A	Mouse	Less circadian rhythmicity and de-phased single-cell rhythms	Depression-like behavior	Landgraf et al. (2016a,b)
Chronic social defeat stress	NAc	N/A	Mouse	Alteration Per1 and Per2 expression	Increased anxiety responses	Spencer et al. (2013)
Chronic stress	NAc	N/A	Mouse	Increased Npas2 mRNA	Changes in forced swim test	Ozburn et al. (2017)
Clomipramine (CLI) injection	LHb	N/A	Mouse	Decreased Per2 expression	Depression-like behaviors	Li et al. (2021)
30 min Light pulse at ZT22	LHb	N/A	Mouse	Activation of Per1 expression	Alters despair behaviors	Olejniczak et al. (2021)
T7 cycle	PHb	N/A	Mouse	Altered Per2 and c-Fos expression	Increased depression-like behaviors	Fernandez et al. (2018)
3 h light at night for 3 weeks	PHb	N/A	Mouse	Altered circadian rhythm	Increased depression-like behaviors	An et al. (2020)
Retinal input ablation	DNR	N/A	Gerbils	Altered serotonin release	Potentiates depressive-like behavior	Ren et al. (2013)
Dim light at night	Hippocampus	N/A	Rat	Morphological changes including dendritic length, spine changes, and arbor reductions	Induced depression-like behaviors	Fonken et al. (2012)
Chronic mild stress	Hippocampus	N/A	Rat	Increases CDK5 activity	Induced depressive-like behavior	Yeung and Treit (2012)
Chemogenetic activation of ipRGCs	BLA, CEA,NAc,SCN	N/A	Mouse	Evoked circadian phase resetting and pupil constriction and induced neuronal activation	Increased anxiety-like behaviors in the elevated plus maze and open field test	Milosavljevic et al. (2016)
Chronic mild stress	BLA	N/A	Mouse	Disturbed diurnal oscillation of Clock, Cry2, Per1, Per3, Id2, Rev-erbα, Ror-β and Ror-γ expression	Anhedonic behavior	Savalli et al. (2015a,b)
Short photoperiod	BLA	N/A	White-footed mouse	Increased dendritic spine density	Increased fear memory in an auditory-cued fear conditioning test	Walton et al. (2012)