Table 13.

Studies organized by AI application, targeted problem, and imaging type based on near-infrared imaging.

Application	Technique	Target problem and study number
Image enhancement	Classical image analysis approaches	Contrast enhancement (low) [129,130,131]
	Machine learning	Spectral image enhancement for dental disease diagnosis (low) [131]
Disease detection	Machine learning	Dental caries detection using NIR imaging (low) [132,133,134]
Disease classification	Classical image analysis approaches	Dental tissue classification using NIR hyperspectral imaging (low) [135,136]
	Deep learning	Dental caries classification using CNNs (moderate) [137]
Disease segmentation	Deep learning	Lesion segmentation using deep CNN (moderate) [138,139]