Table 3.
Unique biomarkers observed in the literature.
| Biomarkers | Animal or Human Study | No. of Studies | Function or Physiologic Indication |
|---|---|---|---|
| S100B | Animal and Human | 4 | Astrocyte-specific marker expressed in cells that envelope blood vessels in the brain |
| General inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6, NO) | Human | 4 | Inflammatory |
| Beclin-1 | Human | 1 | Autophagy and cell destruction |
| LC3B | Human | 1 | Autophagy and cell destruction |
| Amyloid (tau, amyloid-beta 12) | Human | 3 | Neurodegeneration markers |
| Neurofilament | Human | 1 | Intraneural cytoplasmic structural proteins |
| Neurogranin | Human | 1 | Calmodulin-binding protein expressed in dendritic spines and participated in the protein kinase C signaling pathway |
| GAP-43 | Human | 1 | Cytoplasmic protein responsible for axonal regeneration after insult |
| miRNA | Human | 2 | Variable |
| GFAP | Human | 2 | Glial cell marker |
| MBP | Human | 2 | Protein responsible for adhesion of the cytosolic surfaces of multilayered compact myelin |
| Free fatty acids | Human | 4 | Markers of lipolysis, indicating cell destruction and damage |
| Ferritin | Human | 1 | Intracellular protein that binds and releases iron in a concentration-regulated fashion |
| HIF-1a | Human | 1 | DNA-binding complex, transcriptional regulator protein controlling response to tissue hypoxia |
| VEGF | Human | 1 | Signaling protein that indicates the need for increased blood vessel growth |
| NGF | Human | 1 | Protein that promotes growth of nerves and axons |
| BDNF | Human | 1 | Protein expressed that acts on the RAS/ERK pathway to increase synaptic density |
| Metabolomic markers (methylamine, xanthine, pyridoxamine, L-M-monomethyl arginine, glutamine, histidine) | Animal | 1 | Variable |
| Proteomic markers (4000+ unique signatures) | Animal | 1 | Variable |
| UCH-L1 | Animal | 1 | Deubiquitinating enzyme protein, present in neurons, indicating neuronal destruction |
| Doublecortin | Animal | 1 | Microtubule-associated protein promoting stable neural cytoarchitecture |
Abbreviations: BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; GAP-43, growth-associated protein 43; GFAP, glial fibrillary astrocytic protein; HIF, hypoxia-inducible factor; IL, interleukin; MBP, myelin basic protein; miRNA, microRNA; NGF, nerve growth factor; NO, nitric oxide; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.