Table 3.

Reports describing medicinal plants against E. coli, especially UPEC.

No.	Botanical Name	Part Used	Main Compound Class	Effect and Mechanism	Proof Obtained	References
1	Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.	Flowers	Phenolics	Acts against LPS-induced cystitis; attributed to its anti-inflammatory profile by suppressing TLR4/MYD88/NF-κB pathways.	In vivo	[234]
2	Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv.	Rhizome	Phenolics, flavonoids	Decreased bacterial adhesion; interaction with bacterial outer-membrane proteins.	In vivo	[235,236]
3	Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. and Thonn.) Müll.Arg.	Leaves, stem bark	Terpenoids, phenolics	Antibacterial activity on ESBL-producing E. coli isolates.	In vitro	[237]
4	Andrographis paniculate (Burm. F.) Nees	Leaves	Terpenoid	Inhibition of LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 protein expression; negative regulation involving STAT3 phosphorylation and NF-κB activation.	In vitro	[238]
5	Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.	Leaves	Phenolics	UTI control; shrinking and tightening of mucous membranes.	In vitro	[239,240]
6	Aristolochia indica L.	Whole plant	Aristolochic acid analogs	Antibacterial activity against MDR UPEC.	In vitro	[241,242]
7	Armoracia rusticana (Lam.) P. Gaertner et Schreb.	Roots	Isothiocyanates	Possible damage to the cell membrane.	In vitro, in vivo, clinical	[243,244]
8	Arnica montana L.	Flowers	Terpenoids	Biofilm-modulating activity on UPEC.	In vitro	[229,230]
9	Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.	Leaves	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[245]
10	Betula pendula Roth.	Leaves	Phenolics	Bactericidal activity; modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface.	In vitro	[246]
11	Boerhaavia diffusa L.	Hairy root, root	Phenolics	Active against UPEC MDR strains.	In vitro	[247,248]
12	Bridelia ferruginea Benth.	Leaves	Flavonoids, phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[249,250]
13	Calluna vulgaris Salisb.	Leaves, flowers	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[251]
14	Citrus reticulata Blanco	Seeds	Flavonoids, volatile oils	Reduction in UPEC invasion; decreased β1 integrin expression.	In vitro	[252,253]
15	Costus spicatus (Jacq.) Sw.	Leaves	Phenolics	Antimicrobial activity; correlation between the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[254]
16	Crateava nurvala Buch-Hum (Varuna)	Bark	Alkaloids, saponins	Growth inhibition.	In vitro, clinical	[255,256]
17	Curcuma longa L.	Rhizome	Phenolics	Antibiofilm activity; the inhibition of swimming and swarming behavior; the enhanced susceptibility of UPEC to antibiotics; alterations to biofilm morphology, including a reduction in thickness.	In vitro	[257]
18	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Whole plant	Terpenoids	Antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[258]
19	Cyperus rotundus L.	Rhizome	Terpenoids	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[259]
20	Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo	Rhizome	Polysaccharides	The mitigation of UPEC-promoted pyroptosis in macrophage cells; the inhibition of the NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD pathway and ROS signal activation.	In vitro	[260]
21	Equisetum arvense L.	Leaves	Phenolics	Antimicrobial activity; the inhibition of biofilm mass production; antiadhesive action; modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface.	In vitro	[235,246]
22	Galium odoratum (L.) Scop.	Leaves	Phenolics	Modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface.	In vitro	[246]
23	Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino	Leaves	Terpenoids, dammarane-type saponins	Reduction in pro-inflammatory response of BECs to UPEC; the modulation of antimicrobial peptides; NF-κB inhibition and ERK activation.	In vitro	[261]
24	Herniaria glabra Linnaeus.	Leaves	Phenolics	High bactericidal activity; the inhibition of biofilm mass production; modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface.	In vitro	[246]
25	Labisia pumila var. alata (Scheff.) Mez	Herbal	Phenolics	Reduction in uroepithelial apoptosis and the number of intracellular UPEC cells in BECs; reduction in the expression of β1 integrin	In vitro	[262]
26	Lactuca indica L.	Leaves	Terpenoids, phenolics	Reduction in the bacterial colonization of bladder epithelial cells; the inhibition of FAK, significantly decreasing bacterial adherence.	In vitro	[263,264]
27	Lawsonia inermis L.	Leaves	Xanthones	Antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[249]
28	Ocimum gratissimum L.	Leaves, flowers	Terpenoids	Antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[258]
29	Orthosiphon stamineus Benth.	Leaves	Flavonoids, terpenoids, essential oils	Antiadhesive effects; direct interaction between compounds from the extract and the bacterial adhesins.	In vivo	[235,265]
30	Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth	Roots, bark	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[266,267]
31	Peganum. Harmala L.	Seeds	Alkaloids, quinazoline derivatives	Antibacterial Activity.	In vitro	[268,269]
32	Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn.	Leaves, flower stems, rhizomes	Terpenoids	Biofilm-modulating activity on UPEC.	In vitro	[229,270]
33	Petasites hybridus (L.) G.Gaertn., B.Mey. and Schreb.	Leaves, flower stems, rhizomes	Terpenoids	Biofilm-modulating activity on UPEC.	In vitro	[229,270]
34	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Hill	Leaves	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[271]
35	Piper arboreum Aubl.	Leaves	Terpenoids	Modulatory activity, synergistic activity with antibiotic drugs.	In vitro	[272,273]
36	Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross	Whole plant	Terpenoids, phenolics	Anti-inflammatory and moderate antibacterial activity.	In vitro, in vivo	[274]
37	Punica granatum L.	Seed	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[259]
38	Rhodiola rosea L.	Roots, rhizomes	Phenolics	Biofilm-modulating activity on UPEC.	In vitro	[229]
39	Rosa canina L.	Fruit	Vitamins, minerals	The prevention of UTIs.	In vitro, clinical	[275]
40	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Leaves	Phenolics	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[271]
41	Salvia officinalis L.	Leaves	Terpenoids	Antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[258]
42	Salvia plebeia R. Br.	Whole plant	Flavonoids, terpenoids, Phenolic acids	Diuretic activity; UPEC susceptibility.	In vitro, in vivo	[276,277]
43	Schefflera leucantha R. Viguier	Leaves	terpenoids, saponins	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[278,279]
44	Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.	Whole plant, leaves	Phenolics alkaloids	Antibacterial activity against MDR UPEC.	In vitro	[241,280]
45	Tropaeoli majoris herba	Leaves	Isothiocyanates	Intermediate susceptibility; possible damage to the cell membrane.	In vitro, in vivo, clinical	[243,244]
46	Urtica dioica L.	Leaves	Phenolics	Antimicrobial activity; antiadhesive effects; modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface, and the direct interaction between compounds from the extract and the bacterial adhesins.	In vitro, in vivo	[235,246]
47	Vaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke	Seeds	Polysaccharides	The upregulation of innate immunity in the kidney.	In vivo	[281]
48	Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton	Fruit	polyphenols	The obstruction of bacterial adhesion to bladder cells; downregulation or interference with several bacterial virulence factors. The repression of the inflammatory cascades triggered by the immune system; the inhibition of UPEC motility.	In vitro, in vivo	[218]
49	Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.	Leaves	Phenolics	High bactericidal activity; the inhibition of biofilm mass production; modifications to the bacterial surface structures responsible for binding to the occupied surface.	In vitro	[246]
50	Vernonia amygdalina L.	Leaves stems	Terpenoids	Antimicrobial activity.	In vitro	[249,282]
51	Zea mays L.	Stigmata	Phenolics	Decreased bacterial adhesion; interaction with bacterial outer-membrane proteins.	In vivo, in vitro	[235]
52	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Rhizomes	Terpenoids	Antibacterial activity.	In vitro	[283]