Table 3.
Different forms of chitosan-based materials for hemostatic applications and their characteristics findings.
| Forms | Composition | Characteristics | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dressing | CS, aluminum chloride | The microporous structure of the dressing is irregular, which allows it to absorb the maximum amount of blood and promote clot formation. | [28] |
| Carrageenan, CS | The composite dressing’s greater swelling, larger surface area, and mesoporous structure result in superior hemostatic activity by promoting the increased adhesion of blood cells and platelets. | [109] | |
| CS, calcium alginate | Biocompatibility, antibacterial, moisture retention, healing promotion, and noncytotoxicity characteristics make chitosan–calcium alginate dressing a superior option for wound care. | [110] | |
| Hydrogel | CS, PEG | The combination of biodegradability, self-adhesiveness, self-healing ability, stretchability, antibacterial properties, and biocompatibility makes it a promising material for emergency hemostasis, particularly for joint and limb injuries. The hydrogel showed strong adhesion to various substrates (PTFE, pigskin, and glass tubes) and provided long-term stability when applied to bleeding wounds in both static and dynamic humid environments. | [111] |
| Hydroxybutyl-functionalized CS | The material possesses thermosensitive characteristics, strong adhesion ability, effective hemostasis, appropriate mechanical properties, self-healing capability, easy removal as needed, antioxidant properties, as well as photothermal and intrinsic antibacterial activity. | [112] | |
| FCMCS, PDA, PAM | The hydrogel exhibited a variety of functions including tissue adhesion, biocompatibility, self-healing, and antibacterial properties. It also maintained its mechanical characteristics while offering broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. | [113] | |
| CMCS, OHA | The material exhibits favorable biodegradability and biosafety profiles, and possesses strong hemostatic and sealing capabilities, making it a promising candidate for clinical hemostatic sealant applications. | [114] | |
| Sponge | Cs, AgNPs | The chitosan/Ag nanocomposite sponges demonstrated outstanding antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli in the antibacterial test. They also displayed good mechanical properties and noncytotoxicity, with cell viability values exceeding 90%. | [115] |
| CS, cellulose | The sponge demonstrates favorable biocompatibility and hemostatic capability, making it a promising option for prompt hemostasis in cases of severe bleeding. | [116] | |
| CS/PVA-PD-FeO NPs | The sponge demonstrated high porosity and water absorption properties, as well as significant antibacterial activity. It facilitated gaseous exchange, absorbed wound exudate, and inhibited microbial growth in diabetic wounds. Therefore, it can be inferred that the chitosan composite sponge’s antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antibacterial properties can contribute to the healing of diabetic wounds. | [117] | |
| CS/AgNPs/alginate | The material demonstrated notable absorbency and a significant antimicrobial impact, particularly in assays involving Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. | [118] | |
| CS, SIP | The material exhibits a strong ability to absorb fluids, as well as significant procoagulant effects, making it effective in promoting wound healing. | [119] |
CS—chitosan; PEG—polyethylene glycol; CMCS—carboxymethyl chitosan; PDA—polydopamine; PAM—polyacrylamide; FCMCS—fungal mushroom-derived carboxymethyl chitosan; OHA—oxidized hyaluronic acid; AgNPs—silver nanoparticles; PD—aqueous leaf extract of Pinus densiflora; FeO—iron oxide; PVA—polyvinyl alcohol; SIP—squid ink polysaccharide.