. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Jul 13.

Published in final edited form as: Prev Sci. 2021 Dec 22;23(2):321–339. doi: 10.1007/s11121-021-01303-x

Table 4.

Summary of factors associated with CPE

P#	Article authors and years	Child factors	Caregiver/family factors	Provider factors	Service factors	Study quality
Universal programs
6	Bamberger et al. (2014)		Chronic family tension^* (−) Gender^ns Family tension during sessions^ns		Intervention condition (Strengthening Families Program or SFP v. Mindfulness Based SFP)^a	L^b
6	Coatsworth et al. (2017)	Internalizing symptoms^ns Externalizing symptoms^ns	College degree obtained^* (+) Partnered marital status^* (+) Parenting avoidance^* (−) Caregiver-child negative affective relationship quality^* (+) Parenting competence^ns Parenting hassles^ns Positive parenting support^ns Positive parenting involvement^ns Caregiver-child positive affective relationship quality^ns Baseline depressive symptoms^ns Caregiver first session engagement^ns		Intervention condition^* (+; MSFP greater than SFP) Attendance^* (+)	L^b
12	Dumas et al. (2007)	Gender^ns Age^ns Baseline externalizing symptoms^ns	Partnered marital status^* (+) Lower maternal education level^* (+) Age^ns Identified race/ethnicity^ns Family income^ns Baseline stressful life events^ns Time/scheduling demands^ns Caregiver perceived relevance or trust in parenting programs^ns		Attendance^* (+) Geographic location of study site^* (+; Indianapolis greater than Harrisburg) Intervention demands^ns	L^b
12	Dumas et al. (2008)		Age^ns Identified race/ethnicity^ns Marital status^ns Lower maternal education level (years)^ns Family income^ns	Provider SES match with caregiver^* (+) Overall provider match with caregiver^* (+) Provider ethnic match with caregiver^ns Provider attitude match with caregiver^ns Provider values match with caregiver^ns	Geographic location^* (+; Indianapolis greater than Harrisburg)	L^b
12	Dumas et al. (2010)		Age^ns Identified race/ethnicity^ns Marital status^ns Family income^ns		Intervention condition^* (+; monetary incentive greater than no monetary incentive)	L^b
12	Begle and Dumas (2011)				Attendance^* (+)	L^b
12	Hernandez Rodriguez et al. (2020)		Partnered marital status^* (+) Age^ns Identified race/ethnicity		Attendance^* (direction not reported)	L^b
13	Lucia and Dumas (2013)				Attendance^ns	L
14	Dumas et al. (2011)				Attendance^ns	L
Selective programs
2	Baydar et al. (2003)		Harsh, inconsistent, and supportive parenting-caregiver and observer reports^* (+) Parenting-observational^* (+) Depressive symptoms^* (−) History of substance abuse^* (+) Trait anger/aggression^ns Experience of harsh or abusive parenting^a			L^b
2	Reid et al. (2004)	Baseline externalizing symptoms^* (+) Baseline prosocial behavior^ns				L^b
4	Garvey et al. (2006)				Attendance^* (+)	L^b
5	Breitenstein et al. (2010)			Adherence to protocol^* (+) Competence^ns		L^b
5	Gross et al. (2011)				Attendance^* (+) Child care discount^ns	L
9	Lopez et al. (2018)				Attendance^* (+)	L
15	Schoenfelder et al. (2013)	Baseline externalizing symptoms^* (−) Baseline internalizing symptoms (a)	Baseline depression^* (−) Baseline positive parenting^* (+) Baseline grief^ns		Attendance^* (+) Intervention group^* (significant percent of variance in CPE associated with which specific program group the caregiver was assigned to within the intervention condition)	L^b
16	Martinez and Eddy (2005)	Gender^ns Age^ns Birthplace (U.S. vs. other)^ns				L
17	Doty et al. (2016)		Female gender^* (+) College degree education^* (+) No history of deployment^* (+) Number of months deployed^* (+)			L^b
17	Pinna et al. (2017)		Age^* (−) European American identified race/ethnicity^* (+) Gender^ns Education^ns Number of children^ns Family income^ns Deployment status^ns	Shared military-connected background^ns	Home practice satisfaction^* (+) Participant satisfaction across intervention sessions^ns Positive group experience^ns	L
17	Zhang et al. (2017)		Female gender^* (+) Baseline dispositional mindfulness^ns		In-person attendance^* (+)	L^b
23	Nicholson et al. (2002)				Time/intervention phase^* (+)	L^b
24	Berkel et al. (2018)		Baseline relationship quality-caregiver report^* (+) Baseline relationship quality-child report^ns Baseline consistent discipline-caregiver report^* (+) Baseline consistent discipline-child report^* (+) Baseline conflict-caregiver report^ns Baseline conflict-child report^ns		Attendance^* (+)	L^b
25	Day and Sanders (2018)				Intervention condition^* (+; practitioner support enhanced program greater than self-directed program)
Indicated programs
7	Ogg et al. (2014)	Age^ns Current diagnostic status^ns Baseline externalizing symptoms^ns	Age^ns Education^ns		Intervention version^ns (English or Spanish)	L^b
8	Davidson et al. (2017)		Baseline psychological distress^a			L
11	Cunningham et al. (1995)				Intervention condition^ns (Community/Group parent training v. Clinic/Individual parent training)	L
18	Orrell-Valente et al. (1999)	Baseline externalizing symptoms^ns	European American identified race/ethnicity^* (+) Age^ns SES^ns Male in household^ns Baseline stressful life events^ns Baseline parenting efficacy^ns Baseline satisfaction with parenthood^ns	Therapeutic engagement with caregiver^ns Provider race match with caregiver^ns Provider SES match with caregiver^ns Relevant life events shared with caregiver^ns		L^b
18	Nix et al. (2009)	Identified race/ethnicity^ns Baseline externalizing symptoms^ns	Higher education level^* (+) Age^ns Single parent^ns Higher occupational prestige^* (+) Baseline stressful life events^ns Baseline depressive symptoms^ns Baseline social support^ns Baseline home environment^ns Neighborhood quality^ns		Intervention group^* (significant percent of variance in CPE associated with which specific program group the caregiver was assigned to within the intervention condition) Other group members’ quality of participation^* (+)	L^bc
21	Eisenhower et al. (2016)		Baseline sociodemographic risk^{d ns}			L
22	Morgan et al. (2018)	Female gender^* (+) Age^ns Baseline internalizing symptoms^ns Baseline impairment^ns Baseline child inhibition^ns	Access to printer^* (+) Age^ns Marital status^ns Education^ns Lives in major city^ns Only child^ns English as primary household language^ns Family financial hardship^ns Weekly internet use^ns Baseline family strain^ns Baseline psychological distress^ns Baseline overinvolved/overprotective parenting^ns			L^b
26	Ristkari et al. (2019)				Implementation type^* (community trial had higher CPE than research trial)
Not specified programs
27	Giannotta et al. (2019)			Understanding caregivers’ problems-caregiver report^* (+) Age^ns Gender^ns Education^ns Group management skills-caregiver report^ns Supportive of caregivers-caregiver report^ns	Intervention condition^* (Comet intervention program higher CPE than Cope program, Incredible Years program, and Connect program)	L

Results may be different across articles from the same project because the samples and/or analyses may have been different for each article. The value in parentheses indicates the direction of significant effects, with (+) indicating a positive association and (−) indicating a negative association. Any indication of the baseline time point is included in this table when it is clearly articulated in the article

P# project number, L longitudinal design

Significant association with CPE

^ns No significant association with CPE

No inferential statistical test reported

Multivariate analyses

Power analyses conducted

High school or less, low income, teen parenthood, unemployment, racial minority status, and single-caregiver status