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. 2023 Jun 29;12(13):4385. doi: 10.3390/jcm12134385

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Bone regeneration phases. (1) Hematoma formation: infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes. (2) Fibrocartilage callus formation: recruitment of fibroblasts and mesenchymal stem cells. The last one differentiates into chondrocytes at the fracture site. (3) Bony callus formation: differentiation of chondroblasts, chondroclasts, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts is stimulated. Then, cartilaginous calluses are resorbed and begin to calcify. (4) Bone remodeling: osteoblasts and osteoclasts will give rise to successive cycles of remodeling to produce mature bone tissues.