Table 1.

Important food components and biochemicals reported in different extracts of C. album by scientists.

Plant Part	Sample Processing	Extraction Technique	Solvents Employed in Extraction	Reported Phytochemicals	Analytical Method/Technique (s) Employed for Detetction	Reference
Aerial parts	Shade drying, pulverizing, defatting	Soxhlet extraction, cold maceration	Soxhlation: Ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol Maceration: 50% Methanol	Flavonoid (7.335 mg/g) (Quercetin)	UV–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Infrared spectroscopy (IR), Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and Mass spectrometry (MS) Aluminium chloride method (for flavonoid)	[86]
	Washing, drying, grinding	Cold maceration	Maceration: Acetone	Xanthophylls (331 mg/100 g dry wt): neoxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein (11.7 to 185 mg/100 g dry wt), zeaxanthin, Provitamin A: 120 mg/100 g dry wt)	High-performance liquid chromatography—Photodiode Array (HPLC-PDA), LC-MS	[72]
	Size reduction	Cold maceration, centrifugation	Maceration: Acetone	Apocarotenoids, chenoalbicin (0.02% yield)	HPLC, UV–Vis, Column chromatography (CC), NMR, High-resolution Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (HREIMS)	[89]
	Crushing, defatting	Solvent extraction	Acetone, water, petroleum ether	β-carotene (0.19–5.91 mg/100 g fresh wt)	Column Chromatography	[90]
	Washing, drying, grinding, airtight storage	Solvent extraction	0.05 M Phosphate buffer, 80% aqueous methanol	Total phenols (304.98 GAE) Saponin (0.027–0.867 g/100 g) Phytic acid (268.33 mg/100 g) Alkaloid (1.27–1.67 mg/100 g) Flavonoid (220.0–406.67 mg/100 g) Oxalate (518.45 mg/100 g)	Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), Prothrombin time (saponins), colorimetric method (phytate), UV and MS (flavonoids) Chromatography (alkaloids)	[80]
	Washing, shade drying, grinding, airtight storage	Hydro-distillation	Water	Essential oil (0.466% v/w) (mainly containing α-pinene, β-pinene, linalool, α-terpineol, ascaridole, carvacrol, phytane, linolenic acid, diosgenin)	Gas chromatography (GC)-MS	[22]
	Pulverization	Hydro-distillation	Water	Essential oil (0.64% v/w) [α-thujene, α-pinene (7%), ascaridole (15.5%), myrcene, sabinene, p-cymene 40.9%, limonene, camphene, carvacrol, elemicin, neral, citronellal, borneol, γ-terpineneol (6.2%)]	Gas chromatography—Flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and GC-MS	[18]
	Drying, coarse powdering	Maceration	Methanol, chloroform, n-hexane, petroleum ether, acetone	Alkaloids, amino acids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinone, flavonoids, steroids, starch	UV–Vis	[17]
	Air drying, pulverization	Soxhlation Maceration	Soxhlation: Chloroform, acetone, ethyl acetate, methanol Maceration: 50% methanol	Alkaloids, carbohydrates, amino acids, flavonoids, saponins, tannin, sterol, terpenoids	Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)	[14]
	Shade drying, grinding	Soxhlation	Hexane, ethyl acetate Soxhlation: ethanol	Astragalin (50.75% of total extract)	CC, TLC, High-Performance (HP)-TLC, HPLC, UV, Fourier Transform (FT)-IR, NMR	[91]
	Shade drying, grinding	Solvent extraction	Ethanol, water	Carbohydrates, protein, alkaloid, tannin, saponin, and flavonoid	HPTLC, Fluorescence spectroscopy	[92]
	Cleaning	Microwave-assisted extraction	Petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol, hydroalcoholic, and aqueous solvent	Alkaloids (1.77 to 2.80 mg/g equivalent of atropine), flavonoids (1.72 to 3.81 mg/g equivalent of quercetin), saponins (3.05 to 3.22 mg/g equivalent of diosgenin), total phenols (1.77 to 2.94 mg/g equivalent of gallic acid)	UV, Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), Aluminium chloride method (for flavonoid), Vanillin reagent method (saponins), Bromocresol green reaction method (alkaloids)	[93]
Aerial parts and roots	Air drying, grinding	Maceration	n-hexane, acetone, methanol	Total phenolics 64.37 µg PEs/mg of the extract (protocatechuic acid, rutin, hesperidin (9769.13 ± 158.26 μg/g extract), rutin (2935.19 ± 39.92 μg/g extract), apigetrin, quercetin, astragalin, apigenin, and luteolin), Flavonoids (126.67 µg QEs/mg of extract) Fatty acids (mainly with myristic acid 18.26% and cis-10-pentadecanoic acid 15.93%)	Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), UV–Vis (flavonoids), LC-MS/MS, GC-MS	[88]
Seeds/Grains	Powdering	Solvent extraction	Water	Oleanolic acid, glucose, glucuronic acid,	Ion exchange (IEX) CC, TLC, NMR	[94]
	Cleaned, dried, milled	Solvent extraction	Sodium hydroxide, water	Carbohydrates, protein, fiber, fat	Colorimetry	[95]
	Air drying, grinding	Soxhlation Infusion	Soxhlation: Benzine Infusion: Chloroform, methanol	Lipids (5.8 to 8.9%) (neutral, glycolipids, phospholipids, fatty acids), carotenoids (6.61 mg/100 g) Fatty acids (oleic acid 37.9%, linoleic acid, 26.1%, palmitic acid 17.4%, lignoceric acid 1.1%)	CC, TLC, GC, FTIR	[96]