Table 1.
Maternal and offspring characteristics according to maternal SSB intake: the TMM BirThree Cohort Study, 2013–2017, Japan
| SSB intake pre- to early pregnancy (g/d) | P-value† | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None* | Medium* | High* | |||||
| Mean | sd | Mean | sd | ||||
| 0 | 51·5 | 48·3 | 262·7 | 217·6 | |||
| n 992 | n 5410 | n 712 | |||||
| Maternal characteristics | n or mean | % or sd | n or mean | % or sd | n or mean | % or sd | |
| Age at delivery (years) | |||||||
| < 25 | 23 | 2·3 | 256 | 4·7 | 53 | 7·4 | <0·001 |
| 25–29 | 162 | 16·3 | 1252 | 23·1 | 211 | 29·6 | |
| 30–34 | 412 | 41·5 | 2079 | 38·4 | 262 | 36·8 | |
| ≥ 35 | 395 | 39·8 | 1823 | 33·7 | 186 | 26·1 | |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI‡ (kg/m2) | |||||||
| <18·5 | 160 | 16·1 | 760 | 14·1 | 103 | 14·5 | <0·001 |
| 18·5–24·9 | 752 | 75·8 | 4083 | 75·5 | 513 | 72·1 | |
| ≥ 25·0 | 80 | 8·1 | 567 | 10·5 | 96 | 13·5 | |
| Educational level | |||||||
| High school or lower | 245 | 24·7 | 1556 | 28·8 | 307 | 43·1 | <0·001 |
| Junior college or vocational college | 414 | 41·7 | 2163 | 40·0 | 253 | 35·5 | |
| University or higher | 333 | 33·6 | 1691 | 31·3 | 152 | 21·4 | |
| Smoking status | |||||||
| Never | 685 | 69·1 | 3555 | 65·7 | 353 | 49·6 | <0·001 |
| Quit before pregnancy | 221 | 22·3 | 1295 | 23·9 | 177 | 24·9 | |
| Quit after pregnancy | 77 | 7·8 | 499 | 9·2 | 142 | 19·9 | |
| Current | 9 | 0·9 | 61 | 1·1 | 40 | 5·6 | |
| Parity ≥ 1 | 594 | 59·9 | 2752 | 50·9 | 325 | 45·7 | <0·001 |
| Gestational diabetes | 23 | 2·3 | 61 | 2·1 | 19 | 2·7 | 0·55 |
| Dietary intake§ | |||||||
| Energy (kcal/d) | 2137 | 445 | 1541 | 453 | 1756 | 555 | <0·001 |
| Cereal (g/d) | 426·9 | 133·1 | 426·9 | 103·8 | 396·1 | 116·2 | <0·001 |
| Potato (g/d) | 25·7 | 23·3 | 24·8 | 24·0 | 23·2 | 19·6 | <0·001 |
| Meat (g/d) | 73·7 | 54·2 | 74·9 | 33·7 | 73·5 | 41·7 | <0·001 |
| Oil and fat (g/d) | 10·5 | 6·4 | 10·1 | 3·7 | 9·4 | 4·2 | <0·001 |
| Alcoholic beverage (g/d) | 101·0 | 300·9 | 111·5 | 230·6 | 95·5 | 276·8 | <0·001 |
| Confectionary (g/d) | 18·7 | 30·2 | 19·2 | 16·1 | 20·7 | 19·0 | <0·001 |
| Offspring characteristics | |||||||
| Sex | |||||||
| Male | 506 | 51·0 | 2806 | 51·9 | 358 | 50·3 | 0·67 |
| Female | 486 | 49·0 | 2604 | 48·1 | 354 | 49·7 | |
| Birth weight (g) | 3040 | 397 | 3021 | 414 | 3012 | 436 | 0·34 |
| Gestational age (weeks) | 38·8 | 1·4 | 38·7 | 1·6 | 38·8 | 1·5 | 0·44 |
| Breast-feeding duration ≥ 6 months | 862 | 86·9 | 4436 | 82·0 | 533 | 74·9 | <0·001 |
| Timing of introduction of fruit juice to the offspring (age in months) | |||||||
| < 6 | 327 | 33·0 | 1778 | 32·9 | 266 | 37·4 | 0·06 |
| 7–8 | 319 | 32·2 | 1763 | 32·6 | 233 | 32·7 | |
| 9–10 | 122 | 12·3 | 750 | 13·9 | 90 | 12·6 | |
| 11–12 | 119 | 12·0 | 545 | 10·1 | 75 | 10·5 | |
| Not yet introduced | 105 | 10·6 | 574 | 10·6 | 48 | 6·7 | |
SSB, sugar-sweetened beverages.
*
None: 0 g/d, Medium: <195 g/d, High: ≥195 g/d.
†
Obtained using the Student’s t test for continuous variables and the χ 2 test for categorical variables, comparing mother–offspring pairs who were analysed and mother–offspring pairs who were not.
‡
BMI Z-score was calculated based on the BMI reference data for Japanese children. Overweight/obesity was defined as a BMI Z-score greater than 2 sd above at 1 year of age.
§
All dietary intakes were energy-adjusted by the residual method. SSB included soft drinks, lactic acid bacteria beverages, energy drinks and canned coffee.