Table 1.
Summary of analytical parameters for electrodes described in the literature with a solid contact, ordered according to the type of ion.
| Ion | Ionophore | Solid Contact | Slope, mVdec–1 |
LoD, M |
Linearity Range, M |
pH Range | Potential Stability | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NH4+ | SiO2/ZrO2/phosphate-NH4+ composite | graphite powder | 31.3 | 1.6 × 10−7 | 7.7 × 10−7–4.0 × 10−2 | 6.0–7.0 | - | [180] |
| NH4+ | ammonium ionophore I | CNT−PVC composite MMA−DMA copolymer |
50.9 50.7 |
2.6 × 10−7 2.2 × 10−7 |
1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−3 | - | <1000 µVh−1 (i = 0) 3600 µVh−1 (i = 0) |
[137] |
| NH4+ | ammonium ionophore I | CPANI | 54.2 | 1.0 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−4–1.0 × 10−1 | 2.6–10.1 | - | [58] |
| NH4+ | ammonium ionophore I | graphite–PVB composite | 57.3 | 4.8 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | 2.5–8.5 | - | [142] |
| NH4+ | ammonium ionophore I | 3D graphene–CNT | 59.6 | 1.0 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [175] |
| Li+ | lithium ionophore VI | AuNanocorals/PtNanoflower | 60.4 | ~1.0 × 10−5 | 1.3 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 5.2 µVs−1 (i ± 5 nA) | [181] |
| Na+ | Na(X) | SBS-BMImPF6 | 58.2 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [148] |
| Na+ | sodium ionophore X | Au/CNT/Au | 55.5 | - | 1.0 × 10−3–1 | - | - | [176] |
| Na+ | sodium ionophore VI | ChPBN nanocomposite | 52.4 | - | 10−4–1 | - | 1.3 µVh−1 (i = 0), 288 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) | [150] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | PEDOT(CNT) composite | 57.1 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 12.0 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [135] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | SBS-BMImPF6 | 52.2 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [148] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | PEDOT(PSS) | 60.1 | - | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 690 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [149] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | CB-FP | 59.1 | 2.0 × 10−7 | 3.2 × 10−7–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 20.9 µVs−1 (i = ± 1 µA) | [138] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | PPy/H-ZSM-5 | 54.2 | 7.1 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−2 | - | 130 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [151] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | TTF-TCNQ | 58.5 | 4.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 42.2 µVs−1 (i = ± 10 nA) |
[182] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I potassium ionophore II |
MOFs | 58.2 54.1 |
5.0 × 10−7 6.8 × 10−6 |
1.0 × 10−6–3.2 × 10−3 3.2 × 10−5–3.2 × 10−2 |
- | 15.0 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [183] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | PtNPs-GR | 59.1 | 3.2 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [113] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | MWCNTs:POT nanocomposite | 56.3 | 1.6 × 10−7 | 10−6–10−1 | - | - | [140] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | RuO2 + POT nanocomposite |
58.6 | 1.3 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 86 µVs−1 (i ± 100 nA) | [153] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | PEDOT-HQ | 60.9 | 2.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 100 µVh−1(i = 0) | [157] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | GR + RuO2 CB + RuO2 NT + RuO2 |
58.95 58.03 58.25 |
- | 10−6–10−1 | - | 120 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) 240 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) 200 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) |
[171] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | MoS2/Fe3O4 nanocomposite | 55.2 | 6.3 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 2.9 µVs−1 (i = ± 1 nA) | [184] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | RuO2-PEDOT:PSS | 58.9 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 3.5–10.0 | 14.3 µVs−1 (i ± 100 nA) 77 µVh−1 (i = 0) |
[158] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | hCeO2 hCeO2 + NTs hCeO2 + POT nanocomposites |
55.3 58.9 58.2 |
- | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 |
2.0–11.5 | 86 µVh−1 (i = 0), 6000 µVs−1 (i = ± 10 nA) 95 µVh−1 (i = 0), 2300 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) 240 µVh−1 (i = 0), 2700 µVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) |
[116] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | eCNF, eCNF-Co eCNF/CNT-NiCo with POT nanocomposites |
59.7 59.9 59.8 |
6.3 × 10−7 1.3 × 10−6 3.2 × 10−6 |
10−6–10−1 10−5–10−1 10−5–10−1 |
- | 30 µVh−1 (i = 0), 30 µVh−1 (i = 0), 60 µVh−1 (i = 0) |
[146] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | EDOT-S | 57.2 | 1.7 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [161] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | CNT/POT/hIrO2 CB/POT/hIrO2 |
57.3 58.8 |
- | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 3.5 –10.5 | 43 µVh−1 (i = 0) 79 µVh−1 (i = 0) |
[147] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | eCNF/CNT[HD]-NiCo | 59.4 | 5.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 2.0–10.5 | 60 µVh−1 (i = 0) 31 µVs−1 (i ± 10 nA) |
[173] |
| K+ | potassium ionophore I | CA | 52.0 | 8.5 × 10−3 | 1.0 × 10−4–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [177] |
| Cs+ | MMWCNTs@Cs-IIP composite | 59.5 | 5.0 × 10−8 | 1.0 × 10−7–1.0 × 10−4 | 4.0–6.5 | - | [145] | |
| Ag+ | lariat ether | MWCNTs–PVC composite | 59.4 | 9.3 × 10−8 | 1.0 × 10−7–1.0 × 10−1 | 1.6–7.7 | - | [136] |
| Ca2+ | AU-1 | SBS-BMImPF6 | 29.8 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [148] |
| Ca2+ | calcium ionophore I | PANI–graphene composite | 28.7 | 5.0 × 10−8 | 3.0 × 10−7–1.0 × 10−4 | - | 5.2 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [101] |
| Ca2+ | calcium ionophore IV | oAuCuNPs-MWCNTs | 29.0 | 6.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 15 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [119] |
| Ca2+ | calcium ionophore II | TPEs + carbon black | 31.2 | 1.0 × 10−5 | 1.0 × 10−4–1.0 × 10−1 | 3.0–9.0 | 30.0 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [174] |
| Ca2+ | calcium ionophore II | EDOT-S | 28.9 | 4.5 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 300 μVh–1(i = 0) | [161] |
| Ca2+ | 4,7-diaza-2,3,8,9-dibenzo-15- crown-5 |
MWCNT in PVC | 28.8 | 9.1 × 10−8 | 1.6 × 10−7–1.0 × 10−1 | 3.5–7.0 | - | [143] |
| Cu2+ | copper(II) ionophore IV | SBS-BMImPF6 | 28.8 | - | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [148] |
| Cu2+ | copper(II) ionophore IV | ETH 500/SWCNTs ETH 500/graphene | - | 4.0 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−4 | - | - | [164] |
| Cu2+ | copper(II) ionophore IV | graphene/TCNQ,TCNQ-Cu nanocomposite | 29.9 | 2.5 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−2 | 4.0–6.0 | 25.2 µVs−1 (i = ± 10 nA) | [167] |
| Cu2+ | copper(II)-ion-imprinted polymer–graphite oxide nanocomposite | 26.1 | 4.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 4.0–8.0 | - | [139] | |
| Cu2+ | copper(II) ionophore IV | MWCNTs:BMImPF6 | 29.8 | 3.3 × 10−8 | 1.0 × 10−7 –1.0 × 10−2 | 2.5– 6.0 | 2760 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [170] |
| Cu2+ | copper(II) ionophore IV | CuONPs-MWCNTs nanocomposite | 30.1 | 1.5 × 10−8 | 5.0 × 10−8–3.0 × 10−2 | 4.0–6.0 | 132.0 µV h−1 (i = 0) | [179] |
| Cd2+ | cadmium ionophore I | 3D PGR-MPN | 29.6 | 1.6 × 10−. | 1.0 × 10−8–3.0 × 10−4 | - | 1.6 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [168] |
| Ce3+ | benzo-15-crown-5 | CoNiFe2O4 nanocomposite | 17.5 | 7.0 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−1 | 2.0–10.0 | - | [185] |
| Fe2+ | MWCNTs-Gemi composite | graphite powder | 30.4 | 4.8 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−2 | 3.0–8.0 | - | [172] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | SBS-BMImPF6 | 28.3 | – | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−2 | - | − | [148] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | ETH 500/SWCNTs ETH 500/graphene | - | 1.8 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−9–1.0 × 10−4 | - | - | [164] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | MWCNTs | 29.0 | 4.0 × 10−10 | 2.0 × 10−3–2.0 × 10−9 | 2.0–4.8 | 19.8 µVs−1 (i = ± 1 nA) | [141] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | e-PANI-PS | 29.1 | 5.0 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−3 |
- | 12.3 µVs−1 (i = ± 1 nA) | [154] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | PANI-TiO2 | 29.0 | 7.9 × 10−10 | 1.0 × 10−9–1.0 × 10−3 | - | 122.6 µVs−1 (i = ± 1 nA) | [156] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | Ag@PANI | 29.1 | 6.3 × 10−10 | 1.0 × 10−9–1.0 × 10−3 | 3.0–9.0 | 25.1 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [159] |
| Pb2+ | lead ionophore IV | CNFs:HMImPF6 | 31.5 | 6.0 × 10−9 | 1.0 × 10−8–1.0 × 10−2 | 3.1–7.6 | 105 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [178] |
| NO3− | TDMANO3 | PtNPs-CB | −58.6 | 5.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 3.0–9.0 | 6.3 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [163] |
| NO3− | nitrate ionophore V | graphene-TTF/TTF+ | −59.1 | 6.3 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 4.26 µVs−1 (i = ± 5 nA) | [166] |
| NO3− | nitrate ionophore V | TTF-TCNQ | −58.5 | 3.2 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 16.7 µVs−1 (i = ± 10 nA) |
[182] |
| NO3− | TDMACl | MOFs | −56.3 | 6.3 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–3.0 × 10−2 | - | 11.1 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [183] |
| NO3− | TDMANO3 | POT:MoS2 nanocomposite | −64.0 | 9.2 × 10−5 | 7.1 × 10−4–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [155] |
| NO3− | nitrate ionophore V | PAAm(Cl−)-MnO2 | −50.6 | 6.3 × 10−6 | 6.3 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 2.0 µVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [160] |
| NO3− | Co(Bphen)2(NO3)2 | MWCNTs:THTDPCl nanocomposite | −57.1 | 5.0 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 4.2–10.8 | 106 μVs−1 (i = ± 100 nA) 151.2 µVh−1 (i = 0) |
[169] |
| NO3− | TDDANO3 | PEDOT:PEG | −55.8 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 4.0–10.0 | 280 μVh−1 (i = 0), 90.9 μVs−1 (i = ± 10 nA) |
[162] |
| Cl− | TDMACl | CB-TTF-TCNQ | −58.7 | 2.5 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 16.0 µVs−1 (i = ± 300 nA) | [152] |
| Cl− | bisthiourea-1 | PAAm(Cl−)-MnO2 | −52.2 | 1.0 × 10−5 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | – | 3300 μVs−1 (i ± 1 nA) | [160] |
| Cl− | chloride ionophore III | PANINFs-Cl:MWCNT nanocomposite | −61.3 | 2.3 × 10−6 | 5.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−1 | 4.0–9.0 | 30 μVh−1 (i = 0) | [144] |
| SO42− | sulphate ionophore I | oAuCuNPs-MWCNTs | −27.0 | 9.5 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | 7080 µVh−1 (i = 0) | [119] |
| H2PO4− | uranyl salophene ionophore I | MWCNTs-F127 nanocomposite | −59.0 | 1.6 × 10−5 | 3.2 × 10−5–1.0 × 10−1 | - | - | [165] |
Alphabetical list of abbreviations (to Table 1): 3D graphene-CNT—3D graphene oxide–carbon nanotubes composite; 3D PGR-MPN—three-dimensional porous graphene–mesoporous platinum nanoparticles composite; Ag@PANI—silver nanoparticles and polyaniline; ammonium ionophore I—nonactin; Au/CNT/Au—gold–carbon nanotube–gold sensors; AU-1—N,N-dicyclohexyl-N’-3-(2-propenoyl)-oxyphenyl-3-oxapentanediamide; bisthiourea-1—N-(butyl)thioureido-2,7-di-tert-butyl-9,9-dimethylxanthene; cadmium ionophore I—N,N,N’,N’-tetrabutyl-3,6-dioxaoctanedi(thioamide); calcium ionophore II—2-[2-(dicyclohexylamino)-2-oxoethoxy]-N,N-dio-ctadecylacetamide, ETH 5234; CA—composite aerogel of cellulose fibers and carbon nanotubes; CB-FP—the highly porous graphene/carbon black fluorinated acrylic copolymer; chloride ionophore III—3,6-didodecyloxy-4,5-dimethyl-o-phenylene-bis(mercury chloride), ETH 9033; CB/POT/hIrO2—carbon black/poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl)/hydrous iridium dioxide triple composite; ChPBN nanocomposite—solution-casted chitosan/Prussian blue nanocomposite; CNFs:HMImPF6—carbon nanofibers with 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate nanocomposite; CNT/POT/hIrO2—carbon nanotubes/poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl)/hydrous iridium dioxide triple composite; CNT-PVC—composite polyvinyl chloride membrane impregnated with carbon nanotubes; Co(Bphen)2(NO3)2—cobalt(II) complex with 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline; CoNiFe2O4 nanocomposite—cobalt-doped nickel iron oxide nanocomposite; copper(II) ionophore IV—N,N,N′,N′-tetracyclohexyl-2,2′-thiodiacetamide; CPANI—copolymer of aniline/2,5-dimethoxyaniline; CuONPs-MWCNTs nanocomposite—copper(II) oxide nanoparticles and multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite; eCNF, eCNF-Co and eCNF/CNT-NiCo with POT nanocomposites—electrospun carbon nanofibers, electrospun carbon nanofibers with embedded cobalt nanoparticles and hierarchical nanocomposite with the nanoparticles of cobalt and nickel as a catalyst for the growth of carbon nanotubes with poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl); eCNF/CNT[HD]-NiCo—nanocomposite of electrospun carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes with NiCo nanoparticles as growth catalysts differing in the surface density of CNTs, here HD—high density; EDOT-S—3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene with 4-(2,3-dihydrothieno [3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-yl-methoxy)-1-butanesulfonic acid, sodium salt; e-PANI-PS—hydrophobic polyaniline-polystyrene microfiber films; ETH 500/graphene—tetradodecylammoniumtetrakis(4-chlorophenyl)borate/graphene mixture; ETH 500/SWCNTs—tetradodecylammoniumtetrakis(4-chlorophenyl)borate/single-walled carbon nanotubes mixture; GR + RuO2, CB + RuO2, NT + RuO2—nanocomposites of single-layer graphene, carbon black and multiwalled carbon nanotubes with ruthenium dioxide nanoparticles; graphene/TCNQ, TCNQ-Cu nanocomposite—graphene and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane nanocomposite; graphene-TTF/TTF+—graphene/tetrathiafulvalene nanocomposite; graphite-PVB—graphite particles embedded in a polyvinyl butyral matrix; hCeO2, hCeO2 + NTs, hCeO2 + POT—hydrous cerium oxide, hydrous cerium oxide-carbon nanotubes, hydrous cerium oxide-conducting polymer composite materials; HMInPF6—1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate; lariat ether—7-[(2-hydroxy-1-naphthyl)methyl]-5,6,7,8,9,10-hexahydro-2H-1,13,4,7,10-benzodioxatriazacyclopentadecine-3,11(4H,12H)-dione; lead ionophore IV—tert-butylcalix [4]arene-tetrakis(N,N-dimethylthioacetamide); lithium ionophore VI—6,6-dibenzyl-1,4,8-11-tetraoxacyclotetradecane; MMA–DMA copolymer—plasticizer-free methyl methacrylate–decyl methacrylate copolymer; MMWCNTs@Cs-IIP—magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotubes/cesium-ion-imprinted polymer composite; MOFs—conductive metal-organic frameworks; MoS2/Fe3O4—MoS2 nanoflowers with Fe3O4 nanoparticles nanocomposite; MWCNTs:BMImPF6—multiwalled carbon nanotubes with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate; MWCNTs:THTDPCl nanocomposite—multiwalled carbon nanotubes and trihexyltetradecylphosphonium chloride nanocomposite; MWCNTs-F127—pluronic F-127 and multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite; MWCNTs-Gemi composite—multiwalled carbon nanotubes with gemifloxacin composite; Na(X)—4-tert-butylcalix [4]arene-tetraacetic acid tetraethyl ester; nitrate ionophore V—5,7,16,18-tetrahydrotetrabenzo[d,f,k,m][1,3,8,10]tetraazacyclotetradecine-6,17-dithione; oAuCuNPs-MWCNTs—ordered bimetallic AuCu nanoparticles coupled with multiwalled carbon nanotubes; PAAm(Cl−)-MnO2—poly(allylamine) and manganese dioxide composite; PANI-graphene—polyaniline nanofibers and graphene composite; PANINFs-Cl:MWCNTs nanocomposite—chloride-doped polyaniline nanofibers and multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite; PANI-ZrI—polyaniline-zirconium(IV) iodate; Pd/rGO/PDA@NF—composite material of spherical palladium nanoparticles, reduced graphene oxide and polydopamine on three-dimensional nickel foam; PEDOT(CNT)—poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with carbon nanotubes composite; PEDOT(PSS)—poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate); PEDOT:PEG—poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-polyethylene glycol; PEDOT-HQ—conjugated redox polymer with hydroquinone pendant groups covalently attached to the poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene); PMMA-CeMoO4—poly(methyl methacrylate)-cerium molybdate nanocomposite; POT:MoS2—poly(3-octyl-thiophene) and molybdenum disulfide nanocomposite; potassium ionophore I—valinomycin; potassium ionophore II—bis[(benzo-15-crown-5)-15-ylmethyl]pimelate; POT-MWCNTs—poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite; PPy/H-ZSM-5—electrosynthesized polypyrrole/zeolite composites; PtNPs-CB—carbon black supporting platinum nanoparticles; PtNPs-GR—graphene supporting platinum nanoparticles; RuO2 + POT—ruthenium dioxide and poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl) composite material; RuO2-PEDOT:PSS—ruthenium dioxide–poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate nanocomposite; sodium ionophore VI—bis[(12-crown-4)methyl] dodecylmethylmalonate, dodecylmethylmalonic acid bis[(12-crown-4)methyl ester]; sodium ionophore X—4-tert-butylcalix [4-arene-tetraacetic acid tetraethyl ester]; sulfate ionophore I—α,α’-bis(N’-phenylthioureylene)-m-xylene, bisthiourea; TDDANO3—tetradodecylammonium nitrate; TDMACl—tridodecylmethylammonium chloride; TDMANO3—tridodecylmethylammonium nitrate; TPEs—thermoplastic electrodes, polystyrene-graphite nanoplatelets; TTF-TCNQ—tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane.