Author/ Company	Name of Device	Parameters Studied	AR Interface	Type of AR Display	Operating Principle	Surgical Specialization	CE Marking
Mazor Robotics Inc., Caesarea, Israel	SpineAssist [172]	CT-scan-based image reconstruction, path planning of screw placement, and needle tracking.	Graphical user interface for fluoroscopy guidance using fiducial markers.	Marker-based	The system is fixed to the spine, attached to a frame triangulated by percutaneously placed guidewires.	Transpedicular screw placement (orthopedic) Brain surgery	Yes (2011)
	Renaissance [173]	3D reconstruction of spine with selection of desired vertebral segments.	Hologram generation for localization of screw placement.	Superposition-based	Ten-times faster software processing for target localization due to DL algorithms.	Thoracolumbar screw placement (orthopedic)	Yes (2011)
Zimmer Biomet, Warsaw, Indiana	ROSA Spine [174]	Image reconstruction, path planning of screw placement, and needle tracking.	3D intraoperative planning software for robotic arm control.	Superposition-based	Robotic arm with floor-flexible base, which can readjust its orientation.	Transpedicular screw placement (orthopedic) Brain surgery	Yes (2015)
MedRobotics, Raynham, MA, USA	MazorX [175]	Image reconstruction, 3D volumetric assay of the surgical field.	3D intraoperative planning software for robotic arm control and execution.	Superposition-based	Matching preoperative and intraoperative fluoroscopy to reconstruct inner anatomy.	General spine and brain surgery	Yes (2017)
	Flex Robotic System [176]	Intraoperative visualization to give surgeons a clear view of the area of interest.	Built-in AR software with magnified HD for viewing of anatomy.	Superposition-based	Can navigate around paths at 180 degrees to reach deeper areas of interest in the body by a steering instrument, i.e., joystick. Use of two working channels.	Transoral robotic surgery (TORS), transoral laser microsurgery (TLM), and Flex® procedures	Yes (2014)
Novarad®, Pasig, Philippines	VisAR [5]	Instrument tracking and navigation guidance, submillimeter accuracy.	Reconstructs patient imaging data into 3D holograms superimposed onto patient.	Superposition-based	Hands-free voice recognition for facilitated robot control. Voice User Interface (VUI). Automatic data uploading to the system.	Neurosurgery	Yes (May 2022)
Medacta, Castel San Pietro, Switzerland	NextAR [177]	Instrument tracking and 3D navigation guidance, submillimeter accuracy.	Use of smart glasses to deliver an immersive experience to surgeons.	Superposition/marker-based	Overlays 3D reconstructed models adapted to the patient’s anatomy and biomechanics.	CT-based knee ligament balance and other hip, shoulder, and joint arthroplasty interventions.	Yes (2021)
IMRIS Inc., Winnipeg, MB, Canada	NeuroARM [178]	MRI-based image-guided navigation, force feedback from controllers for tumor localization and resection.	AR-based immersive environment for recreation of haptic, olfactory, and touch stimuli.	Marker-based	Image-guided robotic interventions inside an MRI, with sensory stimulus from workstation to guide the end-effector.	Brain surgery	Yes (2016)
Ma et al., Chinese University of Hong Kong	6-DoF robotic stereo flexible endoscope (RSFE) [179]	Denavit–Hartenberg derivations of Jacobian, servo control, and head tracking for wider angle view, user evaluation, task load comparison.	HoloLens-based tracking using HMD for image-guided endoscopic tracking.	Marker-based	Use of head tracking HoloLens for camera calibration and visualization of tool placement of flexible endoscope	Cardiothoracic	No
Fotouhi et al., John Hopkins University	KUKA robot-based reflective AR [125]	User evaluation, camera-to-joint reference frame Euclidean distance compared for no AR, reflective mirror AR, and single-view AR, joint error calculation.	HMD-based robotic arm guidance and positioning using reflective mirrors.	Marker-based	Digital twin with ghost robot for mapping of virtual-to-real robot linkages from a reference point.	Cardiothoracic	No
Forte et al., Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems	Robotic dry-lab lymphadenectomy [180]	Distance computation for Euclidean arm measurements, user evaluation of AR alignment accuracy.	Stereo-view capture of medical images acquired by robot and HD visualization.	Marker-based	AR-based HMD used to visualize the motion of surgical tip in an image-guided procedure. Image processing of CT scans to locate pixels of virtual marker placed in virtual scene.	Custom laparoscopic box trainer containing a piece of simulated tissue	No
Qian et al., John Hopkins University	Augmented reality assistance for minimally invasive surgery [181]	Point cloud generation for localization of markers, system evaluation using accuracy parameters such as frame rate, peg transfer experiment.	Overlay of point clouds on test anatomy.	Superposition/rigid marker-based	AR-based experimental setup for guiding of a surgical tool to a defect in anatomy.	General surgery	No