Table 1.
General characteristics of included cohort studies in the meta-analysis.
| First Author (Year) | Study Location/Setting | Sex/Age Range or Mean (Year) | Case/Total | Duration Follow-Up (Year) | Outcome Assessment/HTN Definition | Coffee Intake Assessment | Type of Coffee | Report of Coffee Intake | OR or RR or HR (95% CI) | Quality Assessment | Adjustments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Klag (2002) [46] |
USA | M/26 years | 281/1017 | 33 years | Self-report/≥160/≥95 mmHg | Questionnaire | Caffeinated | Coffee >5 vs. 0 cups/day |
RR (95% CI) 1.07 (0.67–1.69) |
6 | Parental history of HTN, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, and BMI |
| Winkelmayer (2005) [45] |
USA/NHS I and II | F/25–55 years | NHS I: 18,955/53,175 NHS II: 13,468/87,369 |
12 years NHS I: 1990–2002 and NSH II: 1991–2003 |
Self-reported diagnosis of HTN/≥140/≥90 mmHg | FFQ | Caffeinated and decaffeinated | Caffeinated coffee ≥6 vs. <1 cup/d |
Caffeinated: RR (95% CI) NHS I: 0.88 (0.80–0.98) NSH II: 0.91 (0.80–1.04) |
6 | Age, BMI, alcohol, family history of HTN, oral contraceptive use (in Nurses’ Health Study II only), physical activity, and smoking |
| Hu (2007) [44] |
Finland | M/F/25–64 years | 2505/24,710 | 13.2 years | Self-reported initiation of antihypertensive drug treatment/Incidence of antihypertensive drug | FFQ/Questionnaire | NR | Coffee ≥8 vs. 0–1 cups/day | HR (95% CI) 1.13 (0.94–1.36) |
7 | Age, sex, study year, education, physical activity, smoking, alcohol, tea, frequency of vegetable, fruit, sausage, and bread consumption, BMI, history of diabetes, total cholesterol and baseline SBP |
| Uiterwall (2007) [43] |
USA | M/F/Men: 40.7 ± 10.0 Women: 40.1 ± 10.3 |
956/5189 | 11 years | Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg | Questionnaire | Regular, decaffeinated or other | All type of coffees: >6 vs. 0 cups/day |
Coffee: OR (95% CI) All: 0.83 (0.65–1.07) Men: 1.03 (0.72–1.46) Women: 0.67 (0.46–0.98) |
8 | Age, sex, BMI smoking, alcohol, tea, education level, occupational status, and total energy intake. |
| Grosso (2016) [37] | Poland/HAPIEE project | M/F/45–69 years | 1735/2725 | 5 years | Measurement/>139/>89 mmHg | FFQ | NR but mostly caffeinated | Coffee >4 vs. <1 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) All: 1.58 (0.85–3.64) Men: 2.42 (0.66–8.91) Women: 1.09 (0.36–3.33) |
7 | Age, sex, education, occupation, BMI, alcohol, smoking, physical activity, history of CVD, diabetes at baseline, cholesterol therapy at baseline, total energy intake, vitamin supplement use, oral contraceptives use, sodium and potassium intakes |
| Rhee (2016) [50] |
USA/The Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study | F/50–79 years | 5566/29,985 | - | Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg | FFQ | Caffeinated and decaffainated | Caffeinated and decaffeinated: ≥4 vs. 0 cups/day | Caffeinated: HR (95% CI) 0.99 (0.90–1.08) |
7 | Age, baseline blood pressure, BMI, physical activity, hormone replacement therapy, alcohol consumption, smoking, total caloric intake, and intakes of sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus as time-varying covariates. |
| Chei (2018) [36] | Singapore/The Singapore Chinese Health Study | M/F/45–74 years | 13,658/38,592 | 9.5 years | Self-report/- | FFQ | Caffeinated | Categorized Coffee ≥3 vs. 1 cups/day |
HR (95% CI) 0.93 (0.86–1.00) |
7 | Age at recruitment (years), year of recruitment, sex, dialect group, BMI, education level, smoking, physical activity, sleep duration, and dietary intake of sodium, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products |
| Gaeini (2019) [32] | Iran/TLGS | M/F/≥19 years | 291/1878 | 6 years | Measuring/≥140/≥90 mmHg or self-reported usage of blood pressure lowering medications | FFQ | NR | Coffee Drinkers vs. non-drinkers |
HR (95% CI) 0.83 (0.63–1.10) |
7 | Sex, age, BMI, Triglyceride to HDL-C ratio, total energy intake |
| Navarro (2019) [31] | Spain/The SUN Project | M/F/35.7 ± 10.4 | 1750/13,369 | 9.1 years | Questionnaires/≥140/≥90 mmHg | FFQ | Regular and decaffeinated coffee | Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee: ≥2 vs. 0 cups/day |
HR (95% CI) 0.86 (0.75–0.99) |
6 | Age, BMI, alcohol, smoking and package-years of smoking, family history of HTN, sodium intake, whole and low fat dairy products consumption, sugar-sweetened beverages, non-sugared carbonated beverages, physical activity, adherence to Mediterranean diet, kind of personality), time spent watching TV and fried and fast-food consumption |
| Villaverde (2019) [30] | France/E3N | F/51.6 ± 6.2 | 9350/40,567 | 12.7 years | Questionnaire/- | Diet history questionnaire | NR | TAC (mmol/day) Quantile 5 vs. quantile 1 |
HR (95% CI) 0.91 (0.80; 1.04) |
7 | Age as the time scale, energy without alcohol, diabetes, treated hypercholesterolemia, education, family history of HTN, smoking, physical activity, BMI, Na, K, Mg, AGPIw3, alcohol |
| Miranda (2021) [27] | Brazil/ELSA | M/F/35–74 years | 1285/8780 | 3.9 years | Measuring/≥140/≥90 mmHg And/or taking anti-hypertensive medications | FFQ | Caffeinated coffee | Coffee >3 vs. ≤1 cups/day | RR (95% CI) 0.85 (0.70–1.04) |
6 | Age, sex, race/skin color, educational attainment, household per capita income, BMI, physical activity level, smoking, alcohol, dietary intake of fruits, vegetables, sodium, potassium, saturated fat, added sugars, total energy intake, supplement use, fasting glucose, total cholesterol, and triglycerides |
| Tan (2021) [47] | Japan/HEXA | M/F/≥40 years | 3897 | 5 | Measurement/≥130/≥80 mmHg | FFQ | NR | Coffee >3 vs. 0 cups/day |
RR (95% CI) 0.85 (0.64, 1.15) |
7 | Age, BMI, energy intake, educational level, current drinking status, current smoking status, and physical activity |