Table 2.
General characteristics of included cross-sectional studies in the meta-analysis.
| First Author (year) | Study Location/Setting | Age Range/Mean Age (year) | Case/Total | Outcome Assessment | Coffee Intake Assessment | Type of Coffee | Report of Coffee Intake | OR or RR or HR (95% CI) | Quality Assessment | Adjustments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kokaze (2009) [42] |
Japan | M/53.8 ± 7.8 years | 398 | Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg | Questionnaire | NR | Coffee > 4 vs. ≤1 cups/day | OR ≤1: 1 2–3: 0.56 (0.34–1.01) >4: 0.58 (0.23–1.45) |
6 | Age, BMI, alcohol, smoking, serum total cholesterol level, serum HDL level, fasting plasma glucose level, serum uric acid level, and green tea. |
| Uhernik (2008) [41] |
Croatia | M/F/>18 years | 10,766 | Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg | Questionnaire | NR | Coffee ≥3 vs. 0 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) All: 0.6 (0.5–0.8) Men: 0.5 (0.3–0.7) Women: 1.1 (0.8–1.6) |
6 | - |
| Guessous (2012) [40] |
Switzerland/The CoLaus study | M/35–75 years | 6127/ Non-smokers: 4480 Smokers: 1647 |
Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg | Questionnaire | NR | Coffee >6 vs. 0 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) Non-smokers 0.59 (0.34–1.02) Smokers: 0.96 (0.38–2.42) |
8 | Age, sex, BMI, contraceptive use, total cholesterol, triglycerides, diabetes, alcohol, CKD-EPI, CYP1A2 variants, menopause and p-value for interaction test. |
| Takami (2013) [39] | Japan/the Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort (J-MICC) Study | M/F/35–70 years | 172/554 | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg | Questionnaire | NR | Rarely <2, 3–4 and 5–6 cups/week 1–2, 3–4 and ≥5 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) <1.5: 1 ≥1.5 and <3: 0.89 (0.55–1.45) ≥3: 0.82 (0.49–1.36) |
8 | Age, sex, total energy intake, physical activity, smoking and drinking habits |
| Grosso (2015) [38] | Poland/arm of the HAPPIE study | M/F/45–69 years | 8821 | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg | FFQ | NR | Coffee ≥2 vs. <1 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) All: 0.78 (0.69–0.88) Men: 0.88 (0.74–1.06) Women: 0.78 (0.65–0.95) |
8 | Sex, age, educational level, occupational level, physical activity, smoking, alcohol, total energy intake, and tea consumption |
| Lee (2018) [35] | Korea | M/F/19–64 years | 15,713 | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg | 24-h dietary recall | NR | Coffee pattern T3 vs. T1 |
OR (95% CI) 0.97 (0.87–1.09) |
7 | Sex, age, education level, income, smoking, physical activity, BMI (except for obesity and abdominal obesity), day of recalled intake; total daily energy intake. |
| Micek (2018) [34] | Poland | M/F/≥20 years | 5164 | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg or treatment of previously diagnosed HTN | 24-h dietary recall | NR | Coffee >400 vs. 0 g/day | OR (95% CI) 0.74 (0.60–0.92) |
8 | Sex, age, educational and occupational status, physical activity, smoking, alcohol, total energy intake, and tea consumption |
| Stutz (2018) [33] | Finland/the Finish Diabetic Nephropathy Study | M/F/46.7 ± 0.4 | 1040 | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg or use of hypertensive medication | FFQ | NR | Coffee ≥5 vs. <1 cup/d | OR (95% CI) 2.19 (1.08–4.44) |
8 | Age, sex, energy intake, alcohol, physical activity, and smoking |
| Hou (2021) [29] | Taiwan/Biobank database | M/F/30–70 years | 3411/19,133 | Questionnaire/- | Self-reports | NR | Coffee drinkers (at least thrice per week) vs. non-drinkers (habitually drank coffee less than three times per week) | OR (95% CI) 0.877(0.807–0.954) |
5 | - |
| Micek (2021) [28] | Italy/MEAL | M/F/≥18 years | 2044 | Measurement/≥140/≥90 mmHg Or medical history of taking anti-hypertensive medications |
FFQ | NR | Categorized T3 (67.6 ± 39.5 mL/d) vs. T1 (47.6 ± 51.9 mL/d) |
OR (95% CI) 0.64 (0.48–0.86) |
9 | Total energy intake, all beverages investigated, age, sex, educational status, smoking, physical activity level, adherence to the Mediterranean diet |
| Barré (2022) [26] | France | M/F/43 ± 14.81 | 4590 | Self-report/Self-report or receiving treatment | Questionnaire | NR | Coffee ≥3 vs. 0 cups/day |
OR (95% CI) 0.66 (0.51–0.85) |
6 | Age, sex, place of birth, living in a couple, tea, cannabis use, tobacco, alcohol, living in poverty |
| Hye-Ji An (2023) [49] | Korea/Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys | M/F/Men: 41.34 ± 0.15 Women: 42.39 ± 0.15 |
42,613 (17,311 men and 25,302 women) | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg or medications | FFQ | NR | Coffee ≥1 time/d vs. <1 time/wk | OR (95% CI) Men: 0.66 (0.52, 0.84) Women: 0.92 (0.77, 1.11) |
9 | Age, the frequency of intake of tea, and carbonated beverages, daily nutritional intake (total and fat), income, education, smoking, alcohol drinking, walking, BMI, and menopausal status (only in women) |
| Nina R (2023) [48] | China | M/F/≥40 years | 1719 (800 men, 919 women) | Measurement/≥130/≥85 mmHg | 2-day, 24-h recall | NR | >1 serving/day vs. non-coffee drinkers | OR (95% CI) Men: 0.88 (0.72, 1.08) Women: 0.79 (0.60, 1.04) |
9 | BMI, education level, alcohol status, Physical activity |