Table 1.
Effects of abiotic stresses on plant physiology, growth, and development.
| Abiotic stress | Plant | Effects | Test conditions | Country of study | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acidity | Wheat (T. aestivum) | Affect lipid peroxidation and antioxidative capacity | Greenhouse | South Africa | Tóth et al. (2020) |
| Tea (Camellia sinensis) | Growth and development of plants were hampered by metabolic problems brought on by increased acidity, which also hindered photosynthesis and the antioxidant defense system | Field | China | Zhang et al. (2020) | |
| Drought | Wheat (T. aestivum) | Decreased grain weight | Potted/growth chamber | China | Li et al. (2018) |
| Rapeseed (Brassica naous) | Alteration of various physiological and anatomical parameters | Potted/growth chamber | Zhu et al. (2021) | ||
| Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) | Reduced fresh weights of the leaves and the whole plant, oxidized soluble sugars and lipids in the leaves and roots, and increased electrolyte leakage from the leaves | In vitro | Canada | Jayawardhane et al. (2022) | |
| Cassava (Manihot esculenta) | Plant height, stem diameter, leaf number, leaf water content, net photosynthetic rate, intercellular CO2 concentration, and stomatal conductance were all lowered | Greenhouse | China | Shan et al. (2018) | |
| Chrysanthemum indicum | Reduced shoot and root lengths, number of flowers, photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance | Potted | India | Sahithi et al. (2021) | |
| Sesame (Sesamum indicum) | Germination percentage, coefficient of variation in germination time, germination index, and seedling vigor index all decreased | Growth chamber | Pakistan | Ahmed et al. (2022) | |
| Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) | Oxidative stress and the production of antioxidants | Potted | China | Zhou et al. (2019) | |
| Salinity | Wheat (T. aestivum) | Lower growth and water content relative. Leaf withering and curling is an early sign of leaf senescence | In vitro/potted | Pakistan, China | Ilyas et al. (2020) and Li et al. (2018) |
| Tomato (S. lycopersicum) | When the amount of salt in the germinating medium increased, the percentage of seeds that germinated dropped | In vitro | Bangladesh | Chakma et al. (2019) | |
| Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) | Plant growth, plant height, dry biomass, and yields are reduced by 15%–32% | Greenhouse | Australia | Atieno et al. (2017) | |
| Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) | A lower germination rate, a higher germination index, longer seedling shoots and roots, as well as fresh and dry weight | In vitro | Iran | Dehnavi et al. (2020) | |
| Rice (Oryza sativa) | Sluggish germination, reduced shoot and root dry weight, shoot and root length, and fresh weight | In vitro | India | Vibhuti et al. (2015) | |
| Temperature | Tomato (S. lycopersicum) | Production of reactive oxygen species in like superoxide and hydrogen peroxide | Greenhouse | Korea | Muneer et al. (2016) |
| Rice (O. sativa) | Delayed germination, dry weight of shoot and root, shoot and root length, fresh weight of stem and root decreased | In vitro | India | Vibhuti et al. (2015) | |
| Water | Cowpeas (V. unguiculata) | A reduction in the amount of soluble sugar in leaves, an increase in the amount of lipid peroxidation in the leaves and roots, and an increase in the amount of leaf electrolyte leakage were all observed | In vitro | Canada | Jayawardhane et al. (2022) |
| Maize (Zea mays), Sorghum (S. bicolor) | Plant height and stem diameter were significantly reduced by salt and water stress | Field | Sudan | Mohammed and Mohammed (2019) |