Table 3.
Multivariate Cox hazard models for the association between loneliness and the risk of IADL disability stratified by sexa
| Men (n = 2,882) | Women (n = 4,266) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HR (95% CI) | Wald χ2 (p-value)b | HR (95% CI) | Wald χ2 (p-value)b | |
| Loneliness (ref. no loneliness) | ||||
| Transient loneliness | 1.17 (0.87,1.58) | 1.05 (0.294) | 1.16 (0.92,1.46) | 1.28 (0.201) |
| Incident loneliness | 1.28 (0.94,1.73) | 1.57 (0.117) | 1.24 (1.08,1.42) | 3.10 (0.002) |
| Chronic loneliness | 1.13 (0.91,1.40) | 1.12 (0.263) | 1.29 (1.16,1.44) | 4.15 (<0.001) |
| Age (years) | 1.09 (1.08,1.10) | 14.26 (<0.001) | 1.09 (1.08,1.10) | 16.87 (<0.001) |
| Race/Ethnicity (ref. Non-Hispanic White) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 1.03 (0.75,1.40) | 0.17 (0.867) | 1.03 (0.80,1.31) | 0.21 (0.836) |
| Hispanic | 1.02 (0.73,1.44) | 0.14 (0.892) | 0.93 (0.68,1.27) | 0.46 (0.644) |
| Others | 1.17 (0.69,1.97) | 0.58 (0.561) | 0.56 (0.25,1.25) | 1.43 (0.154) |
| Education (ref. 0–11 school years) | ||||
| 12 years | 0.94 (0.73,1.21) | 0.47 (0.635) | 0.69 (0.56,0.84) | 3.58 (<0.001) |
| 13+ years | 0.82 (0.63,1.06) | 1.53 (0.125) | 0.75 (0.60,0.93) | 2.57 (0.010) |
| Household income (ref. 1st quartile) | ||||
| 2nd quartile | 0.72 (0.55,0.95) | 0.26 (0.797) | 0.84 (0.66,1.08) | 0.94 (0.350) |
| 3rd quartile | 0.72 (0.55,0.95) | 2.34 (0.019) | 0.84 (0.66,1.08) | 1.36 (0.173) |
| 4th quartile | 0.68 (0.51,0.93) | 2.45 (0.014) | 0.98 (0.74,1.29) | 0.17 (0.863) |
| Married | 0.76 (0.59,0.99) | 2.07 (0.038) | 0.97 (0.81,1.16) | 0.39 (0.700) |
| Current smoker | 1.79 (1.36,2.35) | 4.15 (<0.001) | 1.53 (1.21,1.94) | 3.55 (<0.001) |
| Current heavy drinker | 0.87 (0.68,1.10) | 1.20 (0.229) | 0.91 (0.70,1.18) | 0.74 (0.457) |
| CESD | 1.08 (1.01,1.15) | 2.25 (0.024) | 1.08 (1.03,1.13) | 2.98 (0.003) |
| Self-reported health | 1.37 (1.24,1.52) | 5.94 (<0.001) | 1.35 (1.23,1.48) | 6.44 (<0.001) |
| Having hypertension | 1.06 (0.88,1.28) | 0.82 (0.415) | 1.15 (0.97,1.35) | 1.50 (0.134) |
| Having diabetes | 1.13 (0.91,1.40) | 1.12 (0.264) | 1.29 (1.06,1.56) | 2.57 (0.010) |
| Having heart diseases | 0.93 (0.77,1.14) | 0.67 (0.503) | 1.15 (0.96,1.38) | 1.49 (0.136) |
Note:
a
Cox proportional hazard regression models were applied to estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of IADL disability. All p-values for the overall test less than 0.001.
b
P-values were based on Wald χ2 tests with 1 degree of freedom.
Abbreviations: CI = Confidence Interval; ADL = Activities of Daily Living; IADL = Instrumental Activities of Daily Living; CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score without the loneliness item.