Table 3.

Methods used in publications to explore IPC issues in medical imaging (n = 30)

First author, publication year	Overall study aim(s)	Setting	Sample	Data collection method
				Microbial	Simulation	Survey	Review	Animal studies	Direct observation	Time
Dominik et al., 1995 [35]	To assess the potential risk of contamination and microbial multiplication in a non-ionic contrast medium when supplied in large volume containers and withdrawn in fraction over a certain period of time	Hospital (n = 9), Radiological departments (n = 1) (Germany)	Infusion bottles: n = 1000 (100 at each location)	•	•
Gretzinger et al., 1996 [36]	To validate the integrity of one-way check valves for the delivery of contrast solution to multiple patients	(Canada)	Sprung valves and unsprung valves		•
Buerke et al., 2004* [37]	To evaluate hygienic conditions using automatic injectors in MRI and CT during clinical routine	CT and MRI (Germany)	Medical devices and palms of technical and medical staff	•
Buerke et al., 2008 [38]	To evaluate the risk of microbiologic contamination of the syringes of injectors used to administer contrast agent and saline solution in an experimental setting and clinical routine	Contrast-enhanced CT (Germany)	Experimental study, normal hygienic conditions: total n = 136 samples; Intensive hygienic prevention: total n = 136 samples Clinical study, imprints of palms for technical and medical staff: n = 44 each trial, surfaces (3 × PC keyboards, desktop of operational panel, telephone receiver, CT gantry, inner wall of CT tunnel, automatic injectors (button panel and syringes), and support pillows	•	•
Fox et al., (2008) [39]	To investigate whether X-ray cassettes could be a source of pathogens capable of causing nosocomial infections in the hospital environment	Diagnostic imaging department (England)	X-ray cassettes: n = 40	•
Boyle et al., 2010 [40]	To establish whether infection control measures were being undertaken sufficiently on lead rubber aprons within a diagnostic imaging department	Diagnostic imaging department (England)	Lead rubber aprons: n = 15	•
Buerke et al., 2010 [41]	To evaluate the microbiologic contamination and time efficiency associated with routine clinical use of single-use pre-filled disposable syringes for contrast administration	(Germany)	Imprints of devices and the palms of hands of staff members were microbiologically analysed before the clinical investigation Single use of prefilled contrast syringes and saline syringes: n = 60, and single use of prefilled contrast syringes but multiple use of saline syringes for four injections or patients: n = 60	•						•
Aso et al., 2011* [42]	Not stated	Mobile X-ray system in emergency room, (Japan)	Radiological technologists: n = 22	•		•
Buerke et al., 2011 [43]	To evaluate three different injection systems regarding microbial contamination, time efficiency, and user handling during clinical routine	Radiology, (Germany)	Patients; n = 825 Empty syringes, system A: n = 150; pre-filled syringes, system B: n = 150; Roller pump system C: n = 35 injections/day for 15 days	•		•				•
Shelly et al., 2011 [44]	To explore the potential risk to patients and healthcare workers of acquiring MRSA within a radiology department	Radiology Department (Ireland)	Environmental swabs: n = 125	•			•
Cona et al., 2012 [45]	To verify whether a newly developed replaceable patient-delivery system may allow multiple uses of the system but without such risks	Belgium	Patient-delivery systems: n = 12	•				•
Duszak et al., 2014 [46]	To quantity and characterise bacterial contamination of radiologist workstation	Inpatient and outpatient radiologist computer workstations in 2 teaching hospitals in 2 adjacent states. (USA)	Voice recognition dictation microphones: n = 7, and computer mice: n = 7. Toilet seats and door knobs as comparative samples	•
Giacometti et al., 2014 [47]	To examine the level of microbiological contamination in the main radiology departments in Turin, Italy	12 radiology departments (2 private and 10 public), samples from X-ray tubes, control panels, radiographic cassettes and imaging plates Questionnaire to investigate use of PPE by radiology department chiefs (Italy)	In each Radiology department (n = 12) a total of 12 samples (3 for each of the four areas)	•		•
Antwi et al., 2015 [48]	To assess the appropriate use of infection control by radiographers during radiological examinations in Ghana	3 hospitals (Ghana)	Qualified radiographers: n = 72			•
O’Donoghue et al., 2016 [49]	To evaluate effectiveness on compliance of an intervention to improve awareness of hand hygiene	Radiography unit of district hospital (Hong Kong)	Radiographers: n = 76; nurses: n = 17; healthcare assistants: n = 9			•			•
Abdelrahman et al., 2017 [50]	To evaluate radiographers’ knowledge of nosocomial infection control practices in Jordan	Educational, private, public hospitals (Jordan)	Radiographers: n = 100			•			•
Cabrita et al., 2017* [51]	To evaluate whether radiographers wash their hands; to assess if radiographers use gloves properly; to check whether materials/equipment are disinfected when necessary; to assess the radiographers perception about hygiene standards	Public and private radiology departments (Portugal)	Radiographers			•			•
Nandy et al., 2017 [52]	To test one way valves as a means of infection control used in medical device applications	(USA)	One-way valves: n = 5	•	•
Quon et al., 2017 [53]	To evaluate workstation disinfection rates of hand hygiene of radiologists and trainees at shared workstations and assess the impact of education and reminder place-cards on daily habits	Tertiary care, academic institution (Canada)	Radiologists, fellows and residents			•
Crofton et al., 2018 [54]	To investigate whether an awareness campaign will result in improvement in radiographers’ phone and hand hygiene practices	University hospitals (England)	Radiographers, pre-campaign:n = 36, post-campaign: n = 28	•		•
Nyirenda et al., 2018 [55]	To determine the knowledge and practices of radiographers regarding infection control in radiology departments in government referral hospital in Malawi	Radiology departments in four Government referral hospitals (Malawi)	Radiographers: n = 62			•
Goebel et al., 2019 [56]	To quantify the frequency of bacterial contamination of the injected contrast agent/saline solution by an automated contrast injection system, and to evaluate whether usage of a novel tube system can reduce it	MRI (Germany)	Patients: n = 101	•
Alakhras et al., 2020 [57]	To assess the level of dental radiographers’ compliance with infection control measures and evaluate the factors affecting compliance	9 public hospitals and centres, 2 university affiliated hospitals, 100 private dental clinics/centres (Jordan)	Dental radiographers: n = 175			•
Hasford et al., 2020 [58]	To assess the level of knowledge on SARS-COV-2 infection prevention, transmission and symptoms of COVID-19 among allied radiation medicine professionals	(Ghana)	Radiation medicine professionals: n = 145			•
Aljondi et al., 2021 [59]	To assess the knowledge and practice of infection control for COVID-19 among healthcare workers in radiology departments in Saudi Arabia	Radiology departments (Saudi Arabia)	Radiographer, radiologic technologist, radiologist;  n = 256			•
Almantari et al., 2021 [60]	To assess the enforcement of infection control guidelines for patients with COVID-19 during medical imaging procedure and raise awareness f infection control in different hospital in Saudi Arabia	Saudi Arabia	Four hospitals in Saudi Arabia: n = 128			•
Carotenuto et al., 2021 [61]	To identify factors important to patients for their return to elective imaging during COVID-19 pandemic	Elective MRI (USA)	Patients: n = 99			•
Elshami et al., 2021 [62]	To investigate the response of the radiology workforce to the impact of COVID-19 on professional practice	(India, Middle East, North Africa)	Radiology staff: n = 903			•
Fohely et al., 2021 [63]	To evaluate the overall knowledge of radiographers about IPC	Primary governmental hospitals in Southern West Bank and 3 private hospitals in the same area	Radiographers: n = 40			•
Srivastava et al., 2021 [64]	To evaluate the perception and practice of IPC measures by Radiologists during pre-COVID-19 and present	Clinics, diagnostic centres, hospitals involved in performing ultrasound, reporting cross-sectional imaging, interventional radiology (India)	Radiologists: n = 152			•

*Abstract only; COVID-19: Coronavirus 2019; MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; CT: computed tomography; IPC: Infection prevention and control; PPE: personal protective equipment