Table 3.
Associations between greenspace (average NDVI) within 100 m and 500 m participant residential buffers and selected birth defects, comparing the highest to lowest quartile of NDVI, by rural/urban residential area, National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2011.
| aOR (95% CI)a | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 m | 500 m | |||||
| Rural | Urban | Interaction P valueb | Rural | Urban | Interaction P valueb | |
| Congenital heart defects | ||||||
| Tetralogy of Fallot | 0.59 (0.35,1.02) | 0.75 (0.58,0.96) | 0.25 | 0.62 (0.36,1.08) | 0.72 (0.56,0.93) | 0.60 |
| Transposition of great vessels | 0.64 (0.32,1.28) | 0.91 (0.67,1.23) | 0.17 | 0.80 (0.40,1.57) | 0.88 (0.65,1.19) | 0.38 |
| Atrioventricular septal defect | 2.36 (0.78,7.18) | 0.82 (0.52,1.28) | 0.27 | 2.65 (0.76,9.18) | 0.88 (0.55,1.39) | 0.33 |
| Total anomalous pulmonary venous return | 0.54 (0.18,1.62) | 0.91 (0.57,1.45) | 0.31 | 0.59 (0.21,1.64) | 0.86 (0.52,1.42) | 0.50 |
| Hypoplastic left heart | 0.50 (0.27,0.94) | 1.11 (0.80,1.56) | 0.11 | 0.35 (0.18,0.71) | 1.03 (0.74,1.44) | 0.03 |
| Coarctation of the aorta | 0.61 (0.36,1.05) | 1.06 (0.82,1.38) | 0.12 | 0.67 (0.38,1.20) | 1.37 (1.05,1.79) | 0.02 |
| Aortic stenosis | 2.22 (0.76,6.55) | 0.90 (0.62,1.32) | 0.47 | 0.63 (0.26,1.55) | 1.03 (0.68,1.56) | 0.32 |
| Pulmonary valve stenosis | 0.94 (0.56,1.58) | 1.08 (0.85,1.38) | 0.50 | 0.85 (0.50,1.44) | 1.13 (0.88,1.45) | 0.41 |
| Perimembranous ventricular septal defects | 1.39 (0.84,2.30) | 1.07 (0.86,1.32) | 0.27 | 1.07 (0.64,1.80) | 0.99 (0.80,1.24) | 0.57 |
| Secundum atrial septal defect | 0.92 (0.61,1.39) | 0.90 (0.75,1.10) | 0.69 | 0.66 (0.44,0.99) | 0.80 (0.65,0.97) | 0.74 |
| Non-cardiac defects | ||||||
| Anencephaly | 1.07 (0.55,2.08) | 0.68 (0.47,0.99) | 0.04 | 0.89 (0.45,1.73) | 0.62 (0.42,0.91) | 0.13 |
| Spina bifida | 0.86 (0.54,1.39) | 0.84 (0.65,1.09) | 0.33 | 0.78 (0.47,1.30) | 0.82 (0.62,1.08) | 0.68 |
| Hydrocephaly | 0.87 (0.42,1.80) | 0.83 (0.57,1.21) | 0.64 | 0.69 (0.31,1.51) | 1.21 (0.81,1.81) | 0.72 |
| Anotia/microtia | 0.80 (0.43,1.49) | 0.70 (0.50,1.00) | 0.91 | 0.76 (0.38,1.50) | 0.65 (0.45,0.93) | 0.79 |
| Cleft palate | 0.86 (0.54,1.38) | 0.96 (0.77,1.20) | 0.24 | 0.59 (0.38,0.93) | 0.93 (0.74,1.16) | 0.04 |
| Cleft lip with or without cleft palate | 0.66 (0.47,0.93) | 0.82 (0.69,0.97) | 0.41 | 0.56 (0.40,0.79) | 0.89 (0.75,1.06) | 0.17 |
| Esophageal atresia | 1.81 (0.88,3.72) | 1.04 (0.77,1.42) | 0.96 | 1.36 (0.65,2.82) | 1.13 (0.81,1.56) | 0.80 |
| Anorectal atresia | 1.69 (0.92,3.10) | 0.86 (0.65,1.14) | 0.12 | 1.02 (0.54,1.93) | 0.79 (0.59,1.06) | 0.58 |
| Hypospadiasc | 1.46 (0.80,2.66) | 1.02 (0.83,1.26) | 0.13 | 1.46 (0.80,2.66) | 1.05 (0.85,1.29) | 0.38 |
| Longitudinal limb deficiency | 0.63 (0.29,1.36) | 0.83 (0.55,1.23) | 0.93 | 1.13 (0.45,2.87) | 0.82 (0.54,1.25) | 0.56 |
| Transverse limb deficiency | 0.56 (0.30,1.05) | 0.73 (0.53,1.02) | 0.60 | 0.76 (0.39,1.51) | 0.63 (0.44,0.89) | 0.63 |
| Craniosynostosis | 1.13 (0.67,1.89) | 1.15 (0.91,1.44) | 0.28 | 1.22 (0.70,2.13) | 1.13 (0.89,1.43) | 0.72 |
| Diaphragmatic hernia | 0.55 (0.30,1.00) | 0.84 (0.62,1.14) | 0.06 | 0.54 (0.30,0.98) | 0.89 (0.65,1.20) | 0.09 |
| Omphalocele | 0.51 (0.20,1.28) | 0.82 (0.55,1.24) | 0.31 | 0.39 (0.16,0.99) | 0.63 (0.42,0.95) | 0.19 |
| Gastroschisis | 0.97 (0.59,1.60) | 0.87 (0.66,1.14) | 0.37 | 0.54 (0.33,0.89) | 0.86 (0.64,1.14) | 0.51 |
aOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; NDVI: normalized difference vegetation index.
Adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity (White non-Hispanic, Hispanic foreign-born, Hispanic US-born, Black non-Hispanic, Other), vitamin use b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), smoking b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), alcohol intake b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), maternal occupation during b1-p1 (Yes vs. No), season of conception (winter, spring, summer, fall), and maternal age at delivery (continuous).
P value for interaction was from Wald Chi-square test.
Compared with male controls.