Table 4.
Associations between greenspace (average NDVI) within 100 m and 500 m participant residential buffers and selected birth defects, by neighborhood median household income, National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2011.
| aOR (95% CI)a | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 m | 500 m | |||||
| Above or equal to the median | Below the median | Interaction P valueb | Above or equal to the median | Below the median | Interaction P valueb | |
| Congenital heart defects | ||||||
| Tetralogy of Fallot | 0.75 (0.54,1.04) | 0.74 (0.54,1.01) | 0.60 | 0.68 (0.48,0.94) | 0.82 (0.59,1.13) | 0.35 |
| Transposition of great vessels | 0.86 (0.60,1.24) | 0.72 (0.47,1.10) | 0.58 | 0.79 (0.55,1.16) | 0.90 (0.60,1.34) | 0.92 |
| Atrioventricular septal defect | 0.73 (0.43,1.24) | 1.37 (0.76,2.47) | 0.04 | 0.70 (0.40,1.22) | 1.68 (0.93,3.05) | 0.01 |
| Total anomalous pulmonary venous return | 0.72 (0.40,1.30) | 0.85 (0.45,1.61) | 0.71 | 0.58 (0.31,1.09) | 0.95 (0.51,1.75) | 0.81 |
| Hypoplastic left heart | 0.78 (0.52,1.15) | 1.26 (0.81,1.96) | 0.19 | 0.71 (0.48,1.05) | 0.95 (0.59,1.53) | 0.76 |
| Coarctation of the aorta | 0.85 (0.62,1.17) | 1.11 (0.79,1.56) | 0.29 | 1.08 (0.77,1.51) | 1.28 (0.91,1.81) | 0.29 |
| Aortic stenosis | 0.73 (0.46,1.16) | 1.31 (0.77,2.23) | 0.22 | 0.65 (0.39,1.07) | 1.50 (0.87,2.58) | 0.07 |
| Pulmonary valve stenosis | 1.01 (0.73,1.40) | 1.16 (0.86,1.57) | 0.87 | 1.32 (0.92,1.89) | 1.10 (0.82,1.47) | 0.31 |
| Perimembranous ventricular septal defects | 1.05 (0.80,1.38) | 1.22 (0.93,1.59) | 0.37 | 0.93 (0.70,1.24) | 1.13 (0.86,1.48) | 0.30 |
| Secundum atrial septal defect | 0.75 (0.59,0.96) | 1.15 (0.90,1.46) | 0.02 | 0.72 (0.56,0.92) | 0.90 (0.70,1.15) | 0.10 |
| Non-cardiac defects | ||||||
| Anencephaly | 0.50 (0.32,0.77) | 1.37 (0.90,2.10) | 0.002 | 0.45 (0.29,0.70) | 1.29 (0.83,1.99) | 0.003 |
| Spina bifida | 0.84 (0.61,1.14) | 0.96 (0.70,1.32) | 0.41 | 0.76 (0.54,1.05) | 1.00 (0.72,1.39) | 0.11 |
| Hydrocephaly | 0.94 (0.59,1.50) | 0.77 (0.49,1.23) | 0.36 | 1.07 (0.64,1.77) | 1.24 (0.77,2.02) | 0.97 |
| Anotia/microtia | 0.54 (0.36,0.82) | 0.98 (0.64,1.50) | 0.09 | 0.54 (0.35,0.84) | 0.80 (0.51,1.25) | 0.26 |
| Cleft palate | 0.84 (0.64,1.11) | 1.07 (0.81,1.43) | 0.26 | 0.73 (0.56,0.97) | 1.04 (0.78,1.38) | 0.16 |
| Cleft lip with or without cleft palate | 0.74 (0.60,0.92) | 0.88 (0.71,1.09) | 0.09 | 0.79 (0.64,0.98) | 0.93 (0.75,1.15) | 0.21 |
| Esophageal atresia | 1.13 (0.76,1.66) | 1.32 (0.88,1.97) | 0.76 | 1.18 (0.77,1.79) | 1.31 (0.87,1.98) | 0.71 |
| Anorectal atresia | 0.81 (0.57,1.14) | 1.24 (0.88,1.76) | 0.02 | 0.65 (0.45,0.93) | 1.16 (0.81,1.65) | 0.002 |
| Hypospadiasc | 1.17 (0.88,1.54) | 1.03 (0.79,1.36) | 0.63 | 1.34 (1.00,1.79) | 0.92 (0.70,1.20) | 0.15 |
| Longitudinal limb deficiency | 0.67 (0.41,1.09) | 0.89 (0.54,1.47) | 0.36 | 0.74 (0.43,1.26) | 1.00 (0.61,1.64) | 0.29 |
| Transverse limb deficiency | 0.61 (0.41,0.92) | 0.85 (0.56,1.28) | 0.24 | 0.57 (0.37,0.86) | 0.82 (0.53,1.25) | 0.26 |
| Craniosynostosis | 1.01 (0.76,1.34) | 1.35 (1.00,1.84) | 0.40 | 1.22 (0.89,1.65) | 1.22 (0.89,1.65) | 0.93 |
| Diaphragmatic hernia | 0.94 (0.64,1.38) | 0.67 (0.45,0.99) | 0.10 | 0.84 (0.57,1.24) | 0.86 (0.58,1.26) | 0.44 |
| Omphalocele | 0.77 (0.46,1.29) | 0.67 (0.38,1.16) | 0.62 | 0.50 (0.30,0.84) | 0.63 (0.37,1.08) | 0.33 |
| Gastroschisis | 0.80 (0.56,1.14) | 1.04 (0.77,1.41) | 0.20 | 0.87 (0.60,1.27) | 0.86 (0.63,1.16) | 0.71 |
aOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; NDVI: normalized difference vegetation index.
Adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity (White non-Hispanic, Hispanic foreign-born, Hispanic US-born, Black non-Hispanic, Other), vitamin use b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), smoking b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), alcohol intake b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), maternal occupation during b1-p1 (Yes vs. No), season of conception (winter, spring, summer, fall), and maternal age at delivery (continuous).
P value for interaction was from Wald Chi-square test.
Compared with male controls.