Table 5.
Associations between greenspace (average NDVI) within 100 m and 500 m participant residential buffers and selected birth defects, by maternal pre-pregnancy obesity, National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2011.
| aOR (95% CI)a | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 m | 500 m | |||||
| Non obese | Obese | Interaction P valueb | Non obese | Obese | Interaction P valueb | |
| Congenital heart defects | ||||||
| Tetralogy of Fallot | 0.73 (0.56,0.94) | 0.67 (0.41,1.09) | 0.98 | 0.78 (0.60,1.01) | 0.62 (0.37,1.02) | 0.74 |
| Transposition of great vessels | 0.92 (0.68,1.24) | 0.39 (0.19,0.81) | 0.04 | 0.91 (0.67,1.23) | 0.62 (0.32,1.23) | 0.33 |
| Atrioventricular septal defect | 0.93 (0.59,1.46) | 0.85 (0.36,2.03) | 0.97 | 0.98 (0.62,1.54) | 1.26 (0.49,3.27) | 0.20 |
| Total anomalous pulmonary venous return | 0.89 (0.54,1.45) | 0.54 (0.20,1.46) | 0.25 | 0.87 (0.53,1.43) | 0.57 (0.20,1.62) | 0.48 |
| Hypoplastic left heart | 0.95 (0.67,1.34) | 0.88 (0.48,1.62) | 0.80 | 0.85 (0.60,1.20) | 0.87 (0.46,1.63) | 0.95 |
| Coarctation of the aorta | 0.96 (0.74,1.25) | 0.94 (0.53,1.67) | 0.25 | 1.18 (0.90,1.55) | 1.35 (0.76,2.41) | 0.63 |
| Aortic stenosis | 0.97 (0.64,1.46) | 0.87 (0.42,1.84) | 0.86 | 1.02 (0.66,1.58) | 1.00 (0.47,2.14) | 0.74 |
| Pulmonary valve stenosis | 1.13 (0.87,1.45) | 1.00 (0.63,1.61) | 0.45 | 1.22 (0.94,1.57) | 0.91 (0.56,1.50) | 0.28 |
| Perimembranous ventricular septal defects | 1.10 (0.89,1.35) | 1.18 (0.71,1.95) | 0.34 | 1.02 (0.82,1.27) | 1.06 (0.65,1.73) | 0.42 |
| Secundum atrial septal defect | 0.96 (0.79,1.16) | 0.78 (0.53,1.15) | 0.44 | 0.84 (0.69,1.02) | 0.75 (0.50,1.11) | 0.99 |
| Non-cardiac defects | ||||||
| Anencephaly | 0.92 (0.64,1.31) | 0.54 (0.27,1.07) | 0.41 | 0.81 (0.56,1.16) | 0.87 (0.44,1.72) | 0.50 |
| Spina bifida | 0.99 (0.76,1.29) | 0.68 (0.43,1.07) | 0.43 | 0.98 (0.75,1.30) | 0.64 (0.39,1.05) | 0.54 |
| Hydrocephaly | 0.85 (0.59,1.25) | 0.97 (0.48,1.98) | 0.87 | 1.30 (0.86,1.96) | 0.81 (0.39,1.68) | 0.67 |
| Anotia/microtia | 0.65 (0.45,0.92) | 1.30 (0.61,2.77) | 0.08 | 0.70 (0.49,1.01) | 0.62 (0.27,1.42) | 0.91 |
| Cleft palate | 1.01 (0.81,1.26) | 0.72 (0.44,1.18) | 0.12 | 0.97 (0.77,1.21) | 0.50 (0.32,0.80) | 0.04 |
| Cleft lip with or without cleft palate | 0.79 (0.67,0.94) | 0.88 (0.61,1.26) | 0.79 | 0.90 (0.76,1.06) | 0.76 (0.53,1.10) | 0.42 |
| Esophageal atresia | 1.18 (0.87,1.62) | 1.25 (0.62,2.51) | 0.60 | 1.26 (0.91,1.76) | 1.26 (0.63,2.53) | 0.81 |
| Anorectal atresia | 1.09 (0.81,1.46) | 0.77 (0.45,1.30) | 0.20 | 0.98 (0.73,1.31) | 0.59 (0.34,1.02) | 0.15 |
| Hypospadiasc | 1.14 (0.92,1.42) | 0.80 (0.52,1.23) | 0.29 | 1.16 (0.93,1.43) | 0.73 (0.47,1.13) | 0.17 |
| Longitudinal limb deficiency | 0.85 (0.57,1.26) | 0.55 (0.23,1.29) | 0.15 | 0.87 (0.58,1.31) | 0.80 (0.34,1.89) | 0.30 |
| Transverse limb deficiency | 0.72 (0.52,1.01) | 0.59 (0.30,1.16) | 0.68 | 0.73 (0.52,1.02) | 0.62 (0.32,1.22) | 0.79 |
| Craniosynostosis | 1.06 (0.84,1.34) | 1.37 (0.83,2.27) | 0.46 | 1.12 (0.88,1.43) | 1.23 (0.75,2.01) | 0.50 |
| Diaphragmatic hernia | 0.82 (0.61,1.12) | 0.67 (0.36,1.24) | 0.52 | 0.84 (0.62,1.14) | 1.01 (0.56,1.84) | 0.95 |
| Omphalocele | 0.84 (0.54,1.32) | 0.60 (0.30,1.22) | 0.74 | 0.54 (0.35,0.85) | 0.65 (0.32,1.32) | 0.34 |
| Gastroschisis | 0.92 (0.72,1.17) | 1.00 (0.41,2.43) | 0.95 | 0.85 (0.66,1.09) | 0.67 (0.26,1.74) | 0.42 |
aOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; NDVI: normalized difference vegetation index.
Adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity (White non-Hispanic, Hispanic foreign-born, Hispanic US-born, Black non-Hispanic, Other), vitamin use b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), smoking b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), alcohol intake b1-p2 (Yes vs. No), maternal occupation during b1-p1 (Yes vs. No), season of conception (winter, spring, summer, fall), and maternal age at delivery (continuous).
P value for interaction was from Wald Chi-square test.
Compared with male controls.