Table 2.
Current trial phase and validated targets information on copper chelators and copper ionophore for HCC.
| Type | Copper regulator | Abbreviation | Molecular formula | Trial Phase | Related targets | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| chelator | Tetrathiomolybdate | TM | MoS4 | Animal model | NF-kB | (86, 116) |
| Cell and animal models | MEK1/2 | (48, 117) | ||||
| Cell model | IL-1 | (118, 119) | ||||
| Cell model | FGF1 | (118, 119) | ||||
| Animal model, Phase II trial | VEGF | (120–122) | ||||
| Cell and animal models, Phase II trial | LOX | (116, 123) | ||||
| Animal model | CCO | (88) | ||||
| Phase II trial | IL-6 | (121, 122) | ||||
| Phase II trial | IL-8 | (121, 122) | ||||
| Phase II trial | bFGF | (121) | ||||
| chelator | Trientine | TETA | C6H18N4 | Cell model | IL-8 | (124) |
| Animal model | CD31 | (102) | ||||
| Cell model | P38 MAPK | (97) | ||||
| chelator | D-penicillamine | DPA | C5H11NO2S | Animal model | LOX | (125) |
| chelator | Choline tetrathiomolybdate | ATN-224 | [(CH3)3NCH2CH2OH]2[MoS4] | Cell model | SOD1 | (126) |
| chelator | Tetraethylenepentamine pentahydrochloride | TEPA | C8H23N5·5HCl | Cell model | PD-L1 | (56) |
| Cell model | HIF-1 | (87) | ||||
| ionophore | Elesclomol | ES | C19H20N4O2S2 | Cell model | GSH | (106) |
| Cell and animal models | FDX1 | (65, 69) | ||||
| ionophore | Disulfiram | DSF | C10H20N2S4 | Cell model | ALDH | (127) |
| Cell model | ubiquitin protein pathway | (112) | ||||
| Animal model | NF-kB | (115, 128) | ||||
| Cell model | P38 MAPK | (113) | ||||
| ionophore | Clioquinol | CQ | C9H5ClINO | Cell model | Proteasome | (129) |