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. 2023 Jun 16;17(8):1153–1166. doi: 10.1038/s41396-023-01450-9

Table 1.

Overview of active ingredients used for pesticides with its characteristics.

Active ingredients Category Chemical classes Chemical structure Mode of action and potential consequences
Aldicarb Insecticide Carbamates graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Taba_HTML.gif AChE inhibitors; neuromuscular interference
Atrazine Herbicide Triazines graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabb_HTML.gif Photosystem II Inhibitors; endocrine system disruption
Chlorpyrifos Insecticide Organophosphates graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabc_HTML.gif AChE inhibitors; neuromuscular interference
Cypermethrin Insecticide Pyrethroids/Pyrethrins graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabd_HTML.gif Sodium channel modulators; nervous system signalling interference
Glufosinate Ammonium Herbicide Phosphinic acids graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabe_HTML.gif Glutamine synthetase inhibitors; glutamate-glutamine homeostasis interference
Glyphosate Herbicide Glycine graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabf_HTML.gif Enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-Phosphate (EPSP) synthase inhibitors; aromatic amino acid nutrition disruption
Imazalil Fungicide Imidazoles graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabg_HTML.gif Ergo/sterol biosynthesis demethylation inhibitors; membrane integrity and fluidity interference
Imidacloprid Insecticide Neonicotinoids graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabh_HTML.gif nAChR competitive modulators; neuromuscular interference
Lindane Insecticide Organochlorines graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabi_HTML.gif GABA-gated chloride channel antagonists; nervous system signalling interference
Nitenpyram Insecticide Neonicotinoids graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabj_HTML.gif nAChR competitive modulators; neuromuscular interference
Penconazole Fungicide Triazoles graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabk_HTML.gif Ergo/sterol biosynthesis demethylation inhibitors; membrane integrity and fluidity interference
Permethrin Insecticide Pyrethroids/Pyrethrins graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabl_HTML.gif Sodium channel modulators; nervous system signalling interference
Propamocarb Fungicide Carbamates graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabm_HTML.gif Lipid synthesis inhibitor; cell membrane permeability and fatty acids disruption
Quinalphos Insecticide Organophosphates graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabn_HTML.gif AChE inhibitors; neuromuscular interference
Thymol Fungicide Phenols graphic file with name 41396_2023_1450_Tabo_HTML.gif Multiple modes of action proposed including cell membrane disruptors

AChE acetylcholinesterase, nAChR nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

Data on mode of action derived from - Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC; https://www.hracglobal.com), Weed Science Society of America (WSSA; Weed Science Society of America (WSSA; https://wssa.net), Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC; https://irac-online.org), Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC; https://www.frac.info) Chemical structures were drawn using BIOVIA, Dassault Systèmes, BIOVIA Draw 2022, San Diego: Dassault Systèmes, 2023.