TABLE 2.
Baseline characteristics of study participants (n = 162) overall and by the intervention group
| Variable | Category | Total sample (n = 162) |
Control group (n = 53) |
Moderate-dose group (n = 53) |
High-dose group (n = 56) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | ||
| Site | ECU | 61 (37.7) | 20 (37.7) | 20 (37.7) | 21 (37.5) |
| UMN | 41 (25.3) | 13 (24.5) | 13 (24.5) | 15 (26.8) | |
| BCM | 60 (37.0) | 20 (37.7) | 20 (37.7) | 20 (35.7) | |
| Season | 2021 Summer | 67 (41.4) | 24 (45.3) | 21 (39.6) | 22 (39.3) |
| 2021 Fall | 63 (38.9) | 17 (32.1) | 22 (41.5) | 24 (42.9) | |
| 2021 Winter – 2022 spring | 32 (19.7) | 12 (22.6) | 10 (18.9) | 10 (17.9) | |
| Sex∗ | Male | 79 (48.8) | 17 (32.1) | 33 (62.3) | 29 (51.8) |
| Female | 83 (51.2) | 36 (67.9) | 20 (37.7) | 27 (48.2) | |
| Race/ethnicity | Non-Hispanic African American/Black | 41 (25.3) | 13 (24.5) | 13 (24.5) | 15 (26.8) |
| Asian | 40 (24.7) | 13 (24.5) | 14 (26.4) | 13 (23.2) | |
| Non-Hispanic White | 44 (27.2) | 15 (28.3) | 14 (26.4) | 15 (26.8) | |
| Hispanic/Latinx | 37 (22.8) | 12 (22.6) | 12 (22.6) | 13 (23.2) | |
| Education∗ | Some college or less | 41 (25.3) | 9 (17.0) | 11 (20.8) | 21 (37.5) |
| College graduate | 121 (74.7) | 44 (83.0) | 42 (79.2) | 35 (62.5) | |
| Income | $39,999 or less | 43 (26.5) | 14 (26.4) | 12 (22.6) | 17 (30.4) |
| $40,000–$79,999 | 58 (35.8) | 21 (39.6) | 19 (35.9) | 18 (32.1) | |
| $80,000 or more | 48 (29.6) | 14 (26.4) | 18 (34.0) | 16 (28.6) | |
| Missing | 13 (8.0) | 4 (7.6) | 4 (7.6) | 5 (8.9) | |
| Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||
| Age (y) | 32.3 (11.1) | 31.3 (10.1) | 33.1 (11.8) | 32.45 (11.4) | |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 25.4 (3.8) | 24.6 (3.2) | 25.8 (4.2) | 25.9 (3.9) | |
| Skin carotenoid level | 298.0 (97.1) | 293.6 (100.9) | 310.8 (101.7) | 290.2 (89.1) | |
| Plasma carotenoid (μg/dL) | 161.5 (69.8) | 159.7 (66.7) | 162.8 (76.2) | 162.0 (67.8) | |
| Arm melanin index | 1.05 (0.50) | 1.02 (0.44) | 1.04 (0.54) | 1.08 (0.52) | |
| Arm hemoglobin index | 1.07 (0.25) | 1.03 (0.28) | 1.09 (0.23) | 1.11 (0.25) | |
| Arm hemoglobin saturation index | 42.8 (14.4) | 44.1 (12.6) | 42.7 (15.0) | 41.6 (15.6) | |
| Arm A | 6.43 (2.27) | 6.26 (2.12) | 6.37 (2.48) | 6.64 (2.21) | |
| Arm B | 16.8 (2.66) | 17.2 (2.43) | 16.7 (2.92) | 16.7 (2.63) | |
| Total sample (n = 162) | Control group (n = 53) | Moderate-dose group (n = 53) | High-dose group (n = 56) | ||
| Baseline nutrient intake | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |
| Energy (kcal/d) | 1801 (1056) | 1640 (892) | 2016 (1232) | 1748 (1002) | |
| Protein (g/d) | 75.0 (51.1) | 69.3 (41.0) | 86.5 (68.1) | 69.4 (38.4) | |
| Total fat (g/d) | 70.5 (41.5) | 65.4 (37.5) | 78.6 (48.1) | 67.7 (37.8) | |
| Total fruit (cups/d) | 1.5 (2.0) | 1.5 (3.0) | 1.7 (1.6) | 1.2 (1.0) | |
| Total vegetables (cups/d) | 1.9 (1.5) | 2.0 (1.6) | 2.0 (1.6) | 1.82 (1.3) | |
| Total fruits and vegetables (cups/d) | 3.4 (2.9) | 3.5 (3.8) | 3.66 (2.6) | 3.02 (2.1) | |
| Cholesterol (mg/d)∗ | 270.6 (211.9) | 231.3 (151.4) | 327.6 (281.8) | 254.0 (172.5) | |
| Carbohydrates (g/d) | 210.9 (131.3) | 196.2 (128.1) | 238.4 (143.6) | 198.9 (119.9) | |
| Total sugars (g/d) | 89.3 (69.3) | 85.4 (90.3) | 99.2 (60.9) | 83.5 (51.8) | |
| Dietary fiber (g/d) | 19.6 (13.3) | 19.3 (13.9) | 21.4 (14.9) | 18.2 (10.8) | |
| Beta carotene (μg/d) | 4963 (5567) | 5127 (5905) | 4867 (5576) | 4898 (5322) | |
| Alpha carotene (μg/d) | 585.0 (809.7) | 561.7 (773.8) | 607.4 (697.4) | 585.8 (944.4) | |
| Beta cryptoxanthin (μg/d)∗ | 119.8 (157.5) | 88.9 (84.6) | 168.3 (232.1) | 103.0 (107.0) | |
| Lutein zeaxanthin (μg/d) | 5268 (7074) | 5946 (7997) | 5030 (7788) | 4852 (5294) | |
| Lycopene (μg/d) | 4951 (4621) | 4467 (3534) | 5849 (6291) | 4559 (3483) | |
| Total carotenoid intake (μg/d) | 15887 (15493) | 16191 (16268) | 16521 (18015) | 14998 (12011) |
∗
Indicates statistically significant differences between the groups. ECU, East Carolina University; UMN, University of Minnesota; BCM, Baylor College of Medicine.