Table 1.
VNS modality types.
| Invasiveness | Modality | Animal/human | Disease/function | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Invasive | VNS: Implanted electrode coil at the left cervical vagus nerve (traditional VNS) | Human—FDA approved | Drug-resistant epilepsy | Morris and Mueller (1999) Labar et al. (1999) Morris et al. (2013) Kawai et al. (2017) |
| Treatment-resistant depression | Rush et al. (2005a) George et al. (2005) Rush et al. (2005b) | |||
| Post-ischemic stroke rehabilitation | Dawson et al. (2021) | |||
| Human—Clinical trial | Verbal memory in DRE | Mertens et al. (2022) | ||
| Electrocardiograms in DRE with VNS | Verrier et al. (2016) | |||
| Ictal tachycardia-triggered VNS for DRE | Fisher et al. (2016) | |||
| Tinnitus | De Ridder et al. (2015) Tyler et al. (2017) | |||
| Fibromyalgia | Lange et al. (2011) | |||
| Generalized anxiety disorder | George et al. (2008) | |||
| Rheumatoid arthritis | Genovese et al. (2020) | |||
| Animal | Anti-inflammation in the brain | Mihaylova et al. (2012) Meneses et al. (2016) Namgung et al. (2022) Caravaca et al. (2022) | ||
| Parkinson's disease | Farrand et al. (2017) Farrand et al. (2020) | |||
| Gulf War illness | Nizamutdinov et al. (2018) Venkatasamy et al. (2021) Iannucci et al. (2022) | |||
| Colitis and cerebral cortical microinfarct | Chen et al. (2018) | |||
| Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy | Zhang et al. (2020) | |||
| Cerebral ischemia and pyroptosis | Tang et al. (2022) | |||
| Spinal cord injury | Chen et al. (2022) | |||
| Transvenous VNS: Stimulation catheter inserted in the left internal jugular vein at spinal level C5–C7 | Human – Clinical trial | Anti-inflammation | Kox et al. (2015) | |
| Non-invasive VNS (nVNS) | Transcutaneous cervical VNS (tcVNS): Stimulation applied via the neck skin | Human—FDA approved | Acute treatment of episodic cluster headache | Silberstein et al. (2016b) Goadsby et al. (2018) |
| Acute treatment of episodic migraine | Tassorelli et al. (2018) Grazzi et al. (2017) | |||
| Prevention of chronic cluster headache | Gaul et al. (2016) | |||
| Prevention of episodic or chronic migraine | Silberstein et al. (2016a) Diener et al. (2019) Najib et al. (2022) | |||
| Human—Clinical trial | Acute stroke | Arsava et al. (2022) | ||
| Atrial fibrillation | Stavrakis et al. (2020) | |||
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | Wittbrodt et al. (2021) | |||
| Opioid use disorder | Gazi et al. (2022) | |||
| COVID-19-related inflammation | Tornero et al. (2022) | |||
| Painful chronic pancreatitis | Muthulingam et al. (2021) | |||
| Animal | Migraine | Liu et al. (2022) | ||
| Percutaneous cervical VNS: Needle electrode insertion at the carotid sheath | Animal | Anti-inflammation and inflammation-related cognitive dysfunction | Huffman et al. (2019) | |
| Transcutaneous auricular VNS (taVNS): Stimulation applied on the left ear concha | Human–Clinical trial | Improved verbal memory in patients with DRE | Mertens et al. (2022) | |
| Tinnitus | Kreuzer et al. (2014) | |||
| Post-stroke rehabilitation | Redgrave et al. (2018) Chang et al. (2021) | |||
| Improved poor feeding of infant | Badran et al. (2020) | |||
| Type 2 diabetes mellitus Glucotropic and orexigenic hormones | Gomolka et al. (2018) Kozorosky et al. (2022) | |||
| Fibromyalgia | Paccione et al. (2022) | |||
| Major depressive disorder | Garcia et al. (2021) | |||
| Opioid use disorder | Tirado et al. (2022) | |||
| Rheumatoid arthritis | Addorisio et al. (2019) | |||
| Post-operative inflammatory response | Salama et al. (2020) | |||
| Erosive hand osteoarthritis | Courties et al. (2022) | |||
| Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome | Merchant et al. (2022) | |||
| Constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome | Shi et al. (2021) | |||
| Prader–Willi syndrome | Manning et al. (2019) | |||
| Heart rate augmentation | Badran et al. (2018) | |||
| Motor performance | Hatik et al. (2022) | |||
| Sleep | Jackowska et al. (2022) | |||
| Gastric motility | Steidel et al. (2021) | |||
| Intestinal barrier dysfunction | Mogilevski et al. (2022) | |||
| Self-adsorption conductive magnet in the bilateral cavity of auricular concha | Animal | Antidepression and neuroinflammation | Guo et al. (2020) | |
| Percutaneous auricular VNS: Acupuncture needles inserted at the left cavum concha | Animal | Anti-neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neurodegeneration of the substantia nigra | Jiang et al. (2018) | |
| Surgery-induced cognitive dysfunction | Cai et al. (2019) | |||
| Hippocampal neuroinflammation and depression | Wang J. Y. et al. (2021) |