Table 2.

Neuropsychological tests.

Name of cognitive test	Task
Paired associates learning (PAL)—visuospatial memory	Different symbols appear in a randomized order in a distinct location on the screen. The symbols are then hidden, and participants are asked to show the location of a presented symbol. If they fail to remember the correct location on the screen, the task is repeated until a maximum of ten trials. In case of an accomplished sequence, there is a next level with an increased difficulty. As a result of the PAL, a memory score was calculated
Verbal recognition memory (VRM)—verbal memory and new learning	Participants must try to memorize a list of 12 words and repeat them freely afterwards. Then a second list was presented. It included the previous words and an additional number of distractors. Participants were asked to indicate, which items they remembered from the first list. After a delay of 20 min, the list appeared again. The number of recalled words was obtained and used for further analysis
Spatial span (SSP)—visual working memory	Color changing squares appeared in a random order on the screen. Participants were required to recall the order in which the squares have changed their color. The spatial length, which is the longest correct recognition sequence of in different order appearing squares, was measured
Grooved pegboard (GP)—visual-motor coordination	There are 25 pegs, which must be rotated so they fit into the differently shaped keyholes and could be correctly inserted. Participants were required to use only one hand. The time needed to accomplish the task with the dominant hand was used here
Simple reaction time (SRT)—reaction time	A square appeared on the screen. The time intervals were varying. Participants were instructed to select the response button as fast as possible after a square was shown. Here, we focused on the number of correct trials
Trail-making test (TMT)—cognitive flexibility, working memory and attention	In part A participants ought to draw a line between 25 numbers in a numerical order. Part B required the participants to draw a line alternating between numbers in a chronological and letters in an alphabetical order (‘START’ 1, A, 2, B…12, L, 13, ‘END’). The time needed to complete the task was measured. Lifting the pencil from the paper whilst being tested was not supposed to happen in neither of both tests. If the task had not been finished after 180 (part A) or 300 (part B) seconds, it was terminated and excluded from our analysis

For more information, please see Lammers et al.²⁸.