Table 2. The scores of the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 3.2 Diabetes Module subscales among children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level; ⱡYoung child to attending school (<6 years).
HbA1c: Glycosylated hemoglobin; SMBG: Self-monitoring blood glucose; MDI: Multiple drug injections; ER: Emergency room; DKA: Diabetic ketoacidosis; ANOVA: Analysis of variance; ref: Best score set as a reference in the posthoc ANOVA test.
| Variables | Diabetes symptoms (P-value) | Treatment barriers (P-value) | Treatment adherence (P-value) | Worry (P-value) | Communication (P-value) | Total (P-value) | Mean HbA1c (P-value) | |
| Sex | Male | 71.02 (ref) | 73.07 (ref) | 75.82 (ref) | 78.46 (ref) | 74.05 (ref) | 74.48 (ref) | 8.96 (ref) |
| Female | *66.53 (0.02) | 70.07 (0.28) | 72.70 (0.27) | 73.09 (0.15) | 74.029 (0.99) | 71.28 (0.10) | 9.11 (0.46) | |
| Age | 5-7 years | 71.62 (ref) | *65.38 (0.01) | *59.87 (0.00) | 82.05 (0.37) | *60.90 (0.00) | *67.97 (0.01) | 8.20 (ref) |
| 8-12 years | 68.10 (0.40) | *69.18 (0.02) | *72.87 (0.01) | 74.80 (0.26) | 72.90 (0.08) | 71.57 (0.07) | *9.01 (0.01) | |
| 13-16 years | 67.41 (0.31) | 77.13 (ref) | 82.00 (ref) | 73.08 (ref) | 81.61 (ref) | 76.25 (ref) | *9.47 (0.00) | |
| Economic status | Good | 70.34 (0.48) | 74.93 (0.98) | 77.12 (ref) | 81.00 (ref) | 80.33 (ref) | 76.74 (ref) | 8.95 (0.99) |
| Fair | 67.85 (0.55) | 69.47 (0.50) | 72.74 (0.36) | 73.73 (0.20) | 71.49 (0.10) | *71.06 (0.03) | 9.09 (0.90) | |
| Poor | 65.89 (ref) | 76.00 (ref) | 74.22 (0.89) | 67.78 (0.26) | 74.58 (0.78) | 71.69 (0.48) | 8.91 (ref) | |
| School performance | Excellent | 69.48 (ref) | 76.56 (ref) | 78.82 (ref) | 76.41 (ref) | 79.57 (ref) | 76.17 (ref) | 8.97 (0.64) |
| Very good | 67.34 (0.75) | *63.88 (0.00) | *68.87 (0.01) | 70.65 (0.54) | 69.78 (0.09) | *68.10 (0.00) | 9.23 (0.30) | |
| Good | 59.00 (0.13) | *54.00 (0.01) | *58.25 (0.02) | 67.50 (0.79) | *48.13 (0.00) | *57.37 (0.00) | 9.97 (0.08) | |
| No schoolⱡ | 67.94 (0.98) | *61.47 (0.02) | *58.14 (0.00) | 88.24 (0.39) | *54.04 (0.00) | *65.97 (0.03) | 8.49 (ref) | |
| Father's education | University | 69.40 (ref) | 73.28 (ref) | 76.44 (ref) | 77.53 (1.00) | 74.69 (0.98) | 74.27 (ref) | 8.80 (ref) |
| High | 68.21 (0.98) | 70.65 (0.93) | 73.91 (0.94) | 68.72 (0.63) | 75.91 (0.99) | 71.48 (0.74) | 9.05 (0.81) | |
| Intermediate | 64.03 (0.38) | *60.48 (0.03) | *63.82 (0.04) | 70.70 (0.85) | 70.77 (0.88) | 65.96 (0.06) | 9.39 (0.31) | |
| Primary | 67.28 (0.98) | 70.00 (0.97) | 68.38 (0.57) | 79.39 (ref) | 78.95 (0.19) | 72.80 (1.00) | 9.55 (0.27) | |
| Lower | 68.13 (1.00) | 85.00 (0.56) | 85.00 (0.82) | 95.83 (0.68) | 51.56 (ref) | 77.10 (0.99) | 10.02 (0.19) | |
| Mother's education | University | 69.68 (0.94) | 71.56 (0.28) | 73.54 (0.43) | 77.98 (0.90) | 74.94 (ref) | 73.54 (0.56) | *8.55 (0.03) |
| High | 67.03 (0.76) | 72.42 (0.33) | 77.00 (0.67) | 72.25 (0.66) | 76.35 (1.00) | 73.01 (0.51) | *9.17 (0.00) | |
| Intermediate | 66.11 (0.72) | *60.15 (0.02) | *61.36 (0.04) | 70.45 (0.62) | 67.42 (0.70) | 65.10 (0.06) | 10.07 (0.47) | |
| Primary | 74.44 (ref) | 89.17 (ref) | 89.17 (ref) | 88.89 (ref) | 73.96 (1.00) | 83.13 (ref) | 9.58 (0.59) | |
| Lower | 68.80 (0.98) | 93.33 (1.00) | 93.33 (1.00) | 100 (0.98) | 31.25 (0.09) | 77.36 (0.98) | 9.82 (ref) | |
| Duration | Less than a year | 60.00 (0.82) | 70.00 (0.98) | 68.75 (0.82) | *16.67 (0.01) | 78.13 (ref) | 58.71 (0.39) | 8.28 (ref) |
| 1-5 years | 69.53 (0.24) | 70.65 (0.76) | 71.90 (0.07) | 77.37 (ref) | 73.08 (0.99) | 72.50 (0.94) | 8.75 (0.90) | |
| More than 5 years | 66.31 (ref) | 72.71 (ref) | 78.41 (ref) | 72.60 (0.44) | 75.90 (0.76) | 73.18 (ref) | 9.67 (0.40) | |
| Type of insulin | MDI | 68.04 (0.15) | 70.82 (0.18) | 73.44 (0.13) | 75.21 (0.81) | 73.81 (0.65) | 72.27 (0.17) | 9.08 (0.16) |
| Pump | 73.43 (ref) | 78.24 (ref) | 81.86 (ref) | 76.96 (ref) | 77.21 (ref) | 77.54 (ref) | 8.53 (ref) | |
| Glucometer | Sensor | 68.89 (ref) | 72.20 (ref) | 75.02 (ref) | 77.27 (ref) | 74.43 (ref) | 73.56 (ref) | 8.91 (ref) |
| SMBG | 66.69 (0.33) | 68.21 (0.23) | 70.40 (0.17) | *68.45 (0.05) | 72.66 (0.69) | 69.28 (0.07) | *9.53 (0.01) | |
| ER visit | None | 70.04 (ref) | 71.49 (ref) | 73.96 (ref) | 76.69 (0.12) | 73.27 (ref) | 73.09 (ref) | 8.85 (ref) |
| 1-2 times | 64.01 (0.07) | 70.00 (0.93) | 76.89 (0.76) | 65.93 (0.12) | 79.412 (0.51) | 71.25 (0.80) | *9.55 (0.04) | |
| More than 2 times | *57.18 (0.00) | 70.77 (0.98) | 69.36 (0.83) | 69.23 (0.80) | 76.44 (0.97) | 68.60 (0.48) | *10.69 (0.00) | |
| Diabetic ketoacidosis | None | 69.93 (ref) | 71.28 (ref) | 73.94 (ref) | 76.32 (ref) | 73.14 (ref) | 72.92 (ref) | 8.91 (ref) |
| 1-2 times | 64.48 (0.13) | 73.79 (0.83) | 77.16 (0.75) | 70.69 (0.60) | 84.27 (0.14) | 74.078 (0.92) | 9.54 (0.10) | |
| More than 2 times | *47.00 (0.00) | 65.00 (0.65) | 66.25 (0.54) | 67.50 (0.63) | 63.75 (0.59) | 61.90 (0.07) | *10.46 (0.01) | |
| Glycemic control | <7.5 | 72.82 (ref) | 72.83 (ref) | 73.53 (ref) | 78.99 (ref) | 75.27 (ref) | 74.69 (ref) | 6.91 (ref) |
| >7.5 | *67.43 (0.03) | 70.98 (0.60) | 74.11 (0.87) | 74.52 (0.36) | 73.77 (0.76) | 72.16 (0.31) | *9.52 (0.00) | |