Table 1.

Demographics of the participating firms and informants (n = 540).

Demographics	N	%	Demographics	n	%
Job position			Ownership structure
Top-level managers	158	29.26	With foreign capital	374	69.26
Mid-level managers	382	70.74	Without foreign capital	166	30.74
Organizational tenure (years)			Type of ownership
2–5	257	47.59	100% foreign-owned enterprise	233	43.15
6–10	165	30.56	SOEs (≥51% states capital)	37	6.85
11–20	96	17.78	Private company	142	26.30
>20	22	4.07	Joint venture	81	15.00
Industry type			Others	47	8.70
Manufacturing	221	40.93	Firm size (assets in VND billion)
Services	319	59.07	≤10	11	2.04
Manufacturing and services sub-sector			11–50	14	2.59
Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, mining	29	5.37	51–100	31	5.74
Processing industry, manufacturing	96	17.78	101–200	43	7.96
Electricity, water, and waste disposal	9	1.67	201–500	69	12.78
Construction	36	6.67	501–1,000	105	19.44
Wholesale and retail	16	2.96	>1,000	267	49.44
Transport, warehouse	17	3.15	Firm size (full-time equivalent employees)
Hotel, restaurant	42	7.78	≤50	17	3.15
Information and communication	39	7.22	51–100	32	5.93
Financial, banking, insurance, real estate	90	16.67	101–300	123	22.78
Consulting (e.g., law, architecture)	29	5.37	301–1,000	154	28.52
Education and training	9	1.67	1,001–5,000	132	24.44
Health and social aid	21	3.89	5,001–10,000	42	7.78
Arts, entertainment, and recreation	9	1.67	>10,000	40	7.41
Others	98	18.15