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. 2023 Jul 10;11:1175927. doi: 10.3389/fped.2023.1175927

Table 2.

Potential predictors associated with FD in the univariate analysis.

Categories Variables FD (n = 380) Non-FD (n = 831) χ 2 p
Child Gestational age (n, %)
 ≤37 weeks 74 (19.5) 157 (18.9)
 >37 weeks 306 (80.5) 674 (81.1) 0.057 0.811
Weight at birth (n, %)
 <2,500g 91 (23.9) 174 (20.9)
 ≥2,500g 289 (76.1) 657 (79.1) 1.391 0.240
Disease at birth (n, %)
 Without 338 (88.9) 776 (93.4)
 Asphyxia 27 (7.1) 32 (3.9)
 Digestive disease 5 (1.3) 3 (0.4)
 Endocrine diseases 7 (1.8) 16 (1.9)
 Cardiovascular disease 3 (0.8) 4 (0.5) 10.262 0.036*
Frequent constipation (n, %)
 No 308 (81.1) 762 (91.7)
 Yes 72 (18.9) 69 (8.3) 28.717 0.000***
Frequent vomiting (n, %)
 No 343 (90.3) 757 (91.1)
 Yes 37 (9.7) 74 (8.9) 0.217 0.642
Frequent diarrhea (n, %)
 No 345 (90.8) 803 (96.6)
 Yes 35 (9.2) 28 (3.4) 18.040 0.000***
Frequent food allergy (n, %)
 No 307 (80.8) 770 (92.7)
 Yes 73 (19.2) 61 (7.3) 37.334 0.000***
Cow's milk protein allergy (n, %)
 No 318 (83.7) 728 (87.6)
 Yes 62 (16.3) 103 (12.4) 3.407 0.065
Food Exclusive breastfeeding (n, %)
 No 58 (15.3) 164 (19.7)
 Yes 322 (84.7) 667 (80.3) 3.483 0.062
Time of introducing complementary food (n, %)
 <4 month 11 (2.9) 4 (0.5)
 4–6 month 133 (35.0) 302 (36.3)
 >6 month 236 (62.1) 525 (63.2) 12.440 0.002**
Food preparing (n, %)
 No 109 (28.7) 112 (13.5)
 Yes 271 (71.3) 719 (86.5) 40.416 0.000***
Parent Anxiety (n, %)
 No 114 (30.0) 576 (69.3)
 Yes 266 (70.0) 255 (30.7) 164.414 0.000***
Quarrels (n, %)
 No 229 (60.3) 717 (86.3)
 Yes 151 (39.7) 114 (13.7) 103.265 0.000***
Parenting style (n, %)
 Responsive 132 (34.7) 440 (52.9)
 Controlling 143 (37.6) 302 (36.3)
 Indulgent 87 (22.9) 63 (7.6)
 Neglectful 18 (4.7) 26 (3.1) 69.651 0.000***
Time for parenting company (n, %)
 <4 h/day 86 (22.6) 202 (24.3)
 4–8 h/day 108 (28.4) 239 (28.8)
 8–12 h/day 100 (26.3) 152 (18.3)
 >12 h/day 86 (22.6) 238 (28.6) 11.907 0.008**
Feeding practice Observing hunger and satiety signals (n, %)
 No 125 (32.9) 143 (17.2)
 Yes 255 (67.1) 688 (82.8) 37.234 0.000***
Training of Self-feeding (n, %)
 No 170 (44.7) 258 (31.0)
 Yes 210 (55.3) 573 (69.0) 21.386 0.000***
Luring to eat (n, %)
 No 157 (41.3) 648 (78.0)
 Yes 233 (58.7) 183 (22.0) 157.272 0.000***
Forcing to eat (n, %)
 No 242 (63.7) 726 (87.4)
 Yes 138 (36.3) 105 (12.6) 91.154 0.000***
Allowing playing while eating (n, %)
 No 179 (47.1) 624 (75.1)
 Yes 201 (52.9) 207 (24.9) 91.412 0.000***
Interacting with child while eating (n, %)
 No 82 (21.6) 79 (9.5)
 Yes 298 (78.4) 752 (90.5) 32.968 0.000***
Between-meal nibbles (n, %)
 No 179 (47.1) 393 (47.3)
 Yes 201 (52.9) 438 (52.7) 0.004 0.952
Meal time limit (n, %)
 No 259 (68.2) 586 (70.5)
 Yes 121 (31.8) 245 (29.5) 0.688 0.407
Providing exclusive tableware (n, %)
 No 89 (23.4) 102 (12.3)
 Yes 291 (76.6) 729 (87.7) 24.389 0.000***
Providing fixed table or chair (n, %)
 No 44 (11.6) 26 (3.1)
 Yes 336 (88.4) 805 (96.9) 34.188 0.000***
Quiet environment (n, %)
 No 112 (29.5) 68 (8.2)
 Yes 268 (70.5) 763 (91.8) 93.407 0.000***
Eating with parents (n, %)
 No 171 (45.0) 378 (45.5)
 Yes 209 (55.0) 453 (54.5) 0.025 0.874

FD, feeding difficulty; χ2, chi-square test; n, numbers; %, percentage.

*p < 0.05.

**p < 0.01.

***p < 0.001.