Table 1.
Overview of Novel Cell–Based and Cell-Free Therapeutic Strategies for Nonunion Fractures Discussed in This Review.
| Trial type | Human/animal model | Type of cells/product | Administration | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clinical trial | Human | UC-MSCs | Combined w/HA and BMP-2 | Dilogo et al. 7 |
| Clinical trial | Human | BM-MSCs | Combined w/cadaveric spongy bone matrices | Prat et al. 8 |
| Clinical trial | Human | BM-MSCs | Intraosseous injection | Zhang et al. 9 |
| Clinical trial | Human | BM-MSCs | Combined w/CE-marked bioceramic | Gomez-Barrena et al. 10 |
| Preclinical trial | Rabbit | BM-MSCs | Combined w/17-estradiol | Zamani Mazdeh et al. 11 |
| Preclinical trial | Rat | BM-MSCs | Combined w/fibrin glue and PTH | Osagie-Clouard et al. 12 |
| Preclinical trial | Rat | BM-MSCs | Combined w/HMGB1-gelatin sponge scaffolds | Xue et al. 13 |
| Preclinical trial | Rabbit | BM-MSCs | Combined w/collagen with OC and/or OPN | Carvalho et al. 14 |
| Preclinical trial | Rat | BM-MSC-Exos | Injection | Zhang et al. 15 |
| Preclinical trial | Mouse | B-EVs | Injection | Hu et al. 16 |
| Preclinical trial | Mini-pig | BMP-6 plasmid targeting endogenous MSCs | Combined w/collagen scaffold | Bez et al. 17 |
UC-MSCs: umbilical cord–derived MSCs; MSC: mesenchymal stem cells; HA: hydroxyapatite; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; BM-MSCs: bone marrow–derived MSCs; PTH: parathyroid hormone; HMGB1: high mobility group box 1; OC: osteocalcin; OPN: osteopontin; B-EVs: BM-MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles.