Table 3.

Characteristics of included studies

Study/year/place of study	Experimental/control or comparison (age range or mean age/sex/number of participants	Diagnosis	Country of birth or linguistic and cultural background/religious background of participants	Study design	Relevant findings
Bairami et al. (2021)/Online	31.17/M—45, F—137/182	NR	Anglo/Caucasian (28), Asian (73), European (33), Middle Eastern (39), Other (9)/Muslims-Australians	Quantitative survey	In comparison with Anglo-Caucasian Muslim participants, CALD Muslim Australian participants were more likely to employ cultural attribution to mental illness. While Anglo participants more strongly endorsed mainstream professional treatment for mental illness over traditional and religious methods, Middle Eastern participants rated the effectiveness of Quran recitation significantly more than Anglo participants
Brijnath (2015)/Melbourne	Exp 38.3/M—13, F—15/28	Depression	Indian-Australian/Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Atheist or Agnostic, other	Qualitative	In comparison with Anglo Australian, Indian Australians drew meaning and peace from spirituality and religious activities. While Anglo-Australian participants made little mention of religion and spirituality, Indian-Australians reported using religious practices such as listening to religious songs and attending church/temple as mental health strategies. Religious faith was considered an important source of support and comfort for Indian Australian participants
	Cont 40.9/M—10, F—20/30	Depression	Anglo-Australian/Christian, Atheist or Agnostic, Other
Chan (2009)/Sydney	Exp 18–79/M—110, F—146/256	Depression	Chinese Australian/NR	Mixed Method	Religious practices such as prayer were identified as a mental health strategy. Participants valued the support from the church and temples to support mental health. Religion and spirituality offered participants insight to change their perspective during adversity
	Cont 24–78/M—67, F—76/143	Depression	Australian/NR
Du Plooy et al. (2019)/Online	46.2/M—634, F—695/1334	NR	Anglo (UK, USA, Canada, South Africa), Southern Asian (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka), Confucian Asian (China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan)/NR	Quantitative survey	Both the Southern Asian and Confucian Asian groups sought significantly more support from religious/church groups compared to the Anglo cultural group and having greater amounts of this support was linked to higher psychological flourishing. There were no significant associations between distress and support from various groups including church or religious groups
Fauk et al. (2022)/Locations in South Australia	18–60/M—10, F—10/20 Service providers—10	NR	The Democratic Republic of Congo (5) South Sudan (4) Liberia (3) Sierra Leone (3) Burundi (2) Ethiopia (1) Kenya (1) Somalia (1)/NR	Qualitative	Participants reported that African migrants' understanding of mental illness was influenced by their religious beliefs and not consistent with how mental illness is defined by Australian mental health services. Participants viewed this discrepancy as a barrier to accessing mental health services. Participants stressed involving local church and religious leaders in education and dissemination of information about mental illness. Since religious leaders are the first point of contact for African migrants, participants stressed educating them and involving them in the mental health care of these communities. It was also noted that African migrants would not feel shame to receive mental health information from religious leaders. Participants noted that the integration of some religious values (aspects) in mental health services may increase the acceptability
Hashemi et al. (2020)/Various locations in Queensland	30.41/M—199, F—183/382	NR	Middle Eastern/ Islam (348), Christian (5), Judaism (3), Others (6), No religion (20)	Quantitative, cross-sectional survey	Using structural equation modelling, this study explored associations between socioreligious predictors and the psychological well-being of migrants. Findings suggested that the religious identity of migrants was directly predictive of psychological well-being. Social connectedness with the ethnic community was a mediator in the association between religious identity and psychological well-being
Hocking (2021)/Melbourne	20–65/M—110, F—21/131	NR	Sri Lanka (49), Pakistan (36), Zimbabwe (21), Iraq (12), Afghanistan (10), Other (3)/NR	Qualitative	Participants identified religion as a protective factor and a buffer against hopelessness and supported mental health. Social support through the religious community helped participants to cope with stress and provided a sense of belonging. Religious practices such as prayers, rituals, reading scriptures and religious counselling were used as mental health strategies to manage stress. Adherence to a religious faith was a salient protective factor against suicide. Religious beliefs (for example, their future was left to the will of Allah) helped participants to adopt a positive outlook and supported mental health
Khawaja et al. (2008)/Brisbane	35/M—11, F—12/23	NR	Sudanese refugees/Christian (22), Islam (1)	Qualitative	Participants used their religion as a coping strategy to deal with the adversities and stress experienced throughout the migration process. Prayer was used as a mental health strategy and was used to combat stress. The sense of surrender through placing their fate in God’s hands helped in coping with stress and struggles related to migration. Religious community—church provided social, emotional, and material support. Religious beliefs helped participants to reappraise the adversities and contributed to coping with stress
Mitha and Adatia (2016)/NR	21.1/M—7, F—4/11 Community leaders—5	NR	NR/Australian Ismaili Muslim	Qualitative	Participants recognised drawing strength from religion through involvement in religious practices. They also found that religious community support was helpful for their mental health. Involving in religious activity provided a sense of belonging and helped in dealing with the feeling of isolation and sadness. Participants reported that the religious community provided a sense of comradery which helped with depression, anxiety, and loneliness. Involvement in religious activities such as khidmat (social service) helped to engage young participants and provided a meaningful role within the community. Religion was reported as a way of deriving meaning in life Religious practices such as Dhikr (chanting) and bandagi (meditation) and reading of scriptures were used as mental health strategies. Participants reported using religious practices as mental health strategies even outside formal religious places. Attending jamatkhana (religious place) was reported to be vital for the psychosocial well-being of participants and provided solace and comfort through spiritual/religious reflection and developing social support networks
Omar et al. (2017)/Melbourne	18–50/M—21, F—0/21	NR	Somalia (17), Ethiopia (1), Djibouti (3)/Muslim	Qualitative	Participants raised the lack of community religious support and connection by not having a muezzin (call to prayer). Religious practices such as reading/recitation of the Quran, and attending congregational prayers in a mosque were identified as effective treatments by participants. Participants reported religious beliefs as an important aspect to develop resilience to support mental health. Some participants suggested that the young generation who might have integrated both Australian and Somalian cultures were more likely to use both religious and mainstream mental health interventions
Prasad-Ildes and Ramirez (2006)/Brisbane	Age—NR/M—10, F—18/28	Major depression, schizophrenia, bipolar, anxiety and personality disorders	Egypt (2), Iraq (2) and Lebanon (2), Colombia (1), Guatemala (1), El Salvador (3), Ecuador (1), Spain (1), Chile (1) Bosnia (4), Filipinas (6) and Iran (4)/NR	Qualitative	A lack of understanding of consumers’ religious beliefs and practices among mental health professionals was identified. Participants reported the need for mental health literacy among religious readers. Participants noted that religious leaders can be a suitable medium for education and support regarding mental health. Training and education of religious leaders and facilitation of linkage between them and local mental health services were recommended as they are the first call for help for people with CALD backgrounds
Ridgway (2022)/Melbourne	26–43/M—0, F—9/9	NR	Albania (1), Indonesia (1), Hong Kong (1), India (2), Arica (1), America (2), UK (1)/Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, self-defined ‘fatalist’	Qualitative	Participating migrant women coped with the stress of divorce through their religiosity/spirituality. Communication and building/reinforcing the relationship with the divine through religious practices such as prayer helped them to endure adversity and rebuild their lives overseas. Religious beliefs helped to reframe their perspective on marital loss which helped in developing resilience. Through the lens of religion, participants were able to change the narrative of their loss and it provided hope for the continuation of life. Social and emotional support from the religious community and through collective chanting and group discussion of religious beliefs were reported to provide a safe place to the participants which supported their mental health
Said et al. (2021)/Melbourne	23.1/M—0, F—31/31	NR	Somali-Australian/NR	Qualitative	Participants reported a strong influence of religion (Islam) on their perception of mental illness. Some participants reported their faith as a barrier to seeking help. Mental illness was considered part of God’s plan, and an endurance test with the prospect of a better afterlife. The participants expressed that the older generation Somalis believed that God could cure mental illness through prayer and reading the Quran. Participants advocated seeking medical assistance in conjunction with religious and traditional therapies. The participants noted that clinicians should consider the belief (in both traditional remedies and western/medical treatment) of the Somali-Australian community when providing mental health care
Schweitzer et al. (2007)/Brisbane	29.77/M—9, F—4/13	NR	Sudanese refugees/Christian	Qualitative	Participants noted their religious beliefs as a source of strength and helped to cope with stress. Their belief in God provided meaning (perspective) in life which then helped to regain some control over their life. Participants reported using religious practices such as praying as a mental health strategy to help with the feeling of loneliness and sadness. A religious community such as a church also provided social, emotional, and material support
Stolk et al. (2015)/NR	Exp 44.84/M—10, F—9/19	Psychosis	Vietnamese-Australian/NR	Quantitative survey	The study compared the functioning of Vietnamese-Australian (low English proficiency) and Australian-born patients with psychosis. In the study sample more (84.2%) Vietnamese Australian participants rated spirituality or religion as important than Australian participants (53.3%). About half of Vietnamese Australian participants attributed mental illness to supernatural causes, none consulted traditional healers
	Cont 46.53/M—7, F—8/15	Psychosis	Australians (ethnicity—NR)/NR
Youssef and Deane (2006)/Sydney	NR/M—19, F—16/35	NR	Arabic Australian-Egypt (18), Lebanese (16), Jordan (1)/Muslim, Christian	Qualitative	The participants demonstrated knowledge and perception of mental illness guided by religious beliefs. The participant reported that as per their religious law, a bridegroom can withdraw from a marriage contract if there is substantial proof of mental illness. This would affect the likelihood of marriage being proposed to any female member of that family since mental illness is considered a hereditary factor in the prospective bride’s family. Participants reported being more comfortable seeking help from religious leaders than mental health professionals. The role of religious leaders was emphasised as important and influential. Participants reported trust (confidentiality) and belief in the ‘spiritual healing power’ of religious leaders. Religious leaders were reported as the initial point of contact. Participants reported their beliefs on religious healing rituals such as reading verses from the Holy book