Table 1.

Main features of apoptosis, autophagy, cuproptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis.

Type of cell death	Morphological features	Biochemical features	Key regulators	Reference
Apoptosis	The permeability of cell membrane is enhanced, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, cell membrane blistering, cell shrinkage, the formation of apoptotic bodies	Pro-apoptotic BCL-2 protein family members, activation of caspases, oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation	BCL-2, P53, Caspase, FAS, BAX, BAK, BCL-XL	[6, 7]
Autophagy	Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles, vacuolisation of the cytoplasm, formation of double-membraned, autolysosomes, no chromatin condensation and lack of change in the plasma membrane	Conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II, Increase of lysosomal activity and degradation of P62	ATG5, ATG7, Beclin 1, TFEB	[8, 9]
Cuproptosis	Rupture of plasma membrane, other unknown	Copper accumulation, protein lipoylation	FDX1, LIAS, LIPT1, DLAT, GLS, MTF	[10, 11]
Ferroptosis	Cell membrane rupture and vesicle, increase of cell membrane density, atrophy of mitochondria, reduction or even disappearance of mitochondrial ridge, chromatin condensation	Iron-overload, accumulation of ROS, Inhibition of system XC— and depletion of GSH, release of arachidonic acid mediators	SLC7A11, GPX4, P53, VDAC2/3, NRF2, LSH, TFR1, NOX	[3–5]
Necroptosis	Rupture of plasma membrane, swelling of cytoplasmic, chromatin condensation(moderate)	Decrease in ATP level, activation of RIP1, RIP3, and MLKL, PARP1 hyperactivation and release of DAMPs	LEF1, RIP1/3, MLKL	[12, 13]
Pyroptosis	Rupture of plasma membrane, karyopyknosis, cytoplasmic swelling and DNA breaks	Activation of caspase-1 and the release of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18	CASP1/4, IL-1, IL-18, GSDMD	[13, 14]

BCL-2 B-cell lymphoma-2, BAX BCL2 associated X, apoptosis regulator, BAK BCL2 antagonist/killer 1, BCL-XL BCL2 like 1, ATG5 autophagy related gene 5, ATG7 autophagy related gene 7, TFEB transcription factor EB, FDX1 ferredoxin 1, LIAS lipoic acid synthetase, LIPT1 lipoyltransferase 1, DLAT dihydrolipoyl transacetylase, GLS glutaminase, MTF1 metal regulatory transcription factor 1, SLC7A11 solute carrier family 7 member 11, GPX4 glutathione peroxidase 4, VDAC2/3 voltage dependent anion channel 2/3, NRF2 nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, LSH lymphocyte stimulating hormone, TFR1 transferrin receptor, NOX NADPH oxidase, LEF1 lymphoid enhancer binding factor 1, RIP1/3 receptor interacting protein kinase1/3, MLKL mixed lineage kinase domain-like, CASP1/4 caspase 1/4, IL-1 interleukin-1, IL-18 interleukin-18, GSDMD Gasdermin D.